{"id":62,"date":"2025-12-30T18:41:07","date_gmt":"2025-12-30T18:41:07","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/childguidance\/?post_type=chapter&p=62"},"modified":"2026-05-19T20:57:26","modified_gmt":"2026-05-19T20:57:26","slug":"historical-perspectives-on-child-guidance","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/childguidance\/chapter\/historical-perspectives-on-child-guidance\/","title":{"raw":"Childhood Interpretations","rendered":"Childhood Interpretations"},"content":{"raw":"

Early Views<\/h2>\r\nIn many ancient civilizations, children were often regarded as just incomplete adults, valued primarily for their future contributions to family survival, labor, and societal continuity. In societies like ancient Greece and Rome, childhood was viewed as a transitional stage leading directly into adult responsibilities. For instance, in Sparta, young boys were subjected to rigorous military training at an early age, reflecting the belief that discipline and endurance were the highest virtues. Similarly, Roman fathers held near-total authority over their children, who were expected to conform to family and societal expectations with little recognition of their developmental needs. (Aries, 1962)\r\n\r\nGuidance in these societies was not seen as fostering the development of individuals but rather as instilling conformity to social, religious, and political norms. Religious teachings, cultural rituals, and moral codes functioned as the primary forms of guidance, often emphasizing obedience, loyalty, and communal duty over personal growth. (Golden, 1990)\r\n

Medieval and Renaissance Periods<\/h3>\r\n\"StreetDuring the Middle Ages in Europe, theological interpretations of childhood profoundly shaped views of guidance. Augustine\u2019s doctrine of original sin was very influential. Children were often perceived as inherently bad and in need of correction. This belief justified the widespread use of strict, even harsh, disciplinary methods designed to \u201cbreak the will\u201d of children in order to cultivate obedience and moral virtue. Instruction was often authoritarian, emphasizing memorization of religious texts and rigid conformity to church and family authority. (Orme, 2001)\r\n\r\nDuring the Renaissance, there was renewed interest in humanism and education, but the prevailing moral framework still placed heavy emphasis on discipline as a means of curbing sinfulness. Educational practices remained harsh, with corporal punishment commonly being used to enforce obedience. (Heywood, 2018) At the same time, thinkers like Erasmus (1529) began to argue for gentler forms of teaching, suggesting the beginning of a shift toward recognizing the dignity of children, though such ideas were not yet mainstream.\r\n

The Enlightenment and Changing Views on Childhood<\/h3>\r\nThe Enlightenment, also called the Age of Reason, refers to the intellectual and cultural movement that started in the late 1600s through the 18th century in Europe. Among the many changes it ushered in, it sparked a profound rethinking of childhood. Philosophers like John Locke argued that children are born as tabula rasa\u2014blank slates\u2014whose character and intellect are shaped by experience, environment, and education. Locke\u2019s views encouraged more rational, consistent, and nurturing guidance, advocating for moral instruction through reason and example rather than fear. (Locke, 1693)\r\n\r\nJean-Jacques Rousseau, however, revolutionized thinking further in his work \u00c9mile (1762), where he described children as innately good and naturally curious. He rejected harsh discipline and instead promoted child-rearing that allowed for natural development, freedom, and experiential learning. (Rousseau, 1762)\r\n\r\nDuring the 19th Century, educational reformers such as Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1801) emphasized love, security, and practical activity in education, while Friedrich Froebel (1826) highlighted the importance of play and creativity, founding the kindergarten movement. Together, these shifts laid the groundwork for a child-centered approach, recognizing childhood as a distinct and valuable phase of life, deserving of respect and protection. (Cunningham, 2005)\r\n

Progress and Change in the 19th Century<\/h3>\r\n\"WorkersThe Industrial Revolution had profound effects on childhood. Many children, some as young as five or six, worked long hours in mines, textile mills, and factories under hazardous conditions that endangered their health and stunted their education (Cunningham, 2005). Reformers and social critics raised concerns about this exploitation, arguing that such labor not only deprived them of a proper childhood but also undermined the moral and intellectual progress of society (Humphries, 2010). These growing concerns fueled political and social movements that pushed for protective legislation, leading to the passage of child labor laws in Britain and the United States, which limited working hours and regulated minimum employment ages.\r\n\r\nParallel to these reforms was the rise of compulsory schooling, as governments and educators increasingly recognized education as both a safeguard against exploitation and an essential foundation for a modern, industrialized society (Heywood, 2018). Together, these changes helped establish the modern understanding of childhood as a distinct stage of life requiring protection, nurturing, and education.\r\n

Early 20th Century Developments<\/h3>\r\nEarly in the 20th century, psychology emerged as a distinct discipline, offering new insights into child development and guidance. This marked a pivotal moment in the evolution of our thinking about children in general. G. Stanley Hall, often called the \u201cfather of child psychology,\u201d introduced the concept of adolescence as a unique developmental stage and emphasized the importance of studying children scientifically to understand their needs. (Hall, 1904)\r\n\r\nJohn Dewey (1916) advanced progressive education, arguing that learning should be experiential and connected to real life, with guidance focused on fostering problem-solving, democratic values, and cooperation rather than rote obedience. This period also witnessed the rise of psychoanalytic theory with Freud (1905), who underscored the impact of early emotional experiences. Behaviorism, led by John Watson (1928), stressed environmental shaping of behavior through reinforcement.\r\n\r\nIn 1915, Alexander Graham Bell and his wife, strong advocates of Montessori education, helped establish Montessori classrooms in the U.S., and a Montessori classroom was even featured at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco that same year. Soon after, Montessori methods gained visibility in Washington, D.C., including in schools connected with political and social leaders, bringing the approach to the attention of the White House during Wilson\u2019s administration. (Standing, 1998)\r\n\r\nCollectively, these perspectives shifted guidance from authoritarian practices to approaches grounded in observation, individual differences, and developmental psychology, laying the foundation for evidence-based, child-centered education and parenting. (Gutek, 2014)\r\n

Expanding Psychological Perspectives of the Mid-Century<\/h3>\r\nDuring the mid-20th century, there was a surge of psychological theories that transformed understandings of child guidance. Sigmund Freud\u2019s psychoanalytic theory highlighted the role of early childhood experiences, unconscious drives, and family dynamics in shaping personality, suggesting that guidance must be sensitive to emotional needs as well as behavior. (Freud, 1917)\r\n\r\nBuilding on this, Erik Erikson (1950) proposed his psychosocial stages of development, emphasizing that children face age-specific crises (such as trust vs. mistrust or autonomy vs. shame) and require supportive guidance to resolve them positively.\r\n\r\nDuring this time, behaviorists such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner (1953) advanced the idea that behavior could be shaped through reinforcement and conditioning. Their approaches influenced schools and parenting practices, promoting structured environments with clear expectations and consequences.\r\n\r\nYet countering purely behavioral models, Maria Montessori\u2019s educational philosophy regained a lot of interest during the 1950s and 1960s. This was driven by American educators traveling to Europe for Montessori training, and Nancy McCormick Rambusch\u2019s adaptation of the method to American culture and educational systems. Montessori (1949) emphasized respect for children\u2019s autonomy, carefully prepared learning environments, and self-directed exploration as foundations for discipline and guidance.\r\n\r\nTogether, these perspectives created a rich but sometimes competing set of models: one focusing on emotional needs, another on environmental shaping, and yet another on child-led independence.\r\n

Late 20th Century: Attachment, Human Rights, and Positive Discipline<\/h3>\r\n\"AFrom the 1960s onward, new developments reshaped child guidance in ways that moved beyond authoritarian or purely behavioral frameworks. John Bowlby\u2019s attachment theory revolutionized thinking by demonstrating the crucial role of secure, loving relationships in healthy emotional and social development. (Bowlby, 1969) His work was supported by Mary Ainsworth\u2019s research. (Ainsworth, 1978) Her \u201cStrange Situation\u201d studies, showed that responsive caregiving fosters trust, resilience, and emotional regulation, shifting guidance toward nurturing relational bonds.\r\n\r\nAt the same time, the global child rights movement reframed childhood as a protected stage of life. The United Nations\u2019 Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) established children\u2019s rights to protection, participation, and provision, influencing policy, education, and parenting worldwide.\r\n\r\nEducational psychology also began emphasizing intrinsic motivation, self-esteem, and democratic classrooms. Rudolf Dreikurs (1964) operationalized much of Alfred Adler\u2019s work with a focus on positive discipline. Guidance increasingly came to be seen as collaborative and respectful, aiming to empower children rather than control them.\r\n

21st Century: Neuroscience, Emotional Intelligence, and Holistic Guidance<\/h3>\r\nIn the 21st century, advances in neuroscience and psychology have deepened our understanding of how children learn, feel, and grow. Brain research has revealed the critical role of early experiences, relationships, and stress regulation in shaping lifelong mental health and learning capacity. These findings reinforce the importance of warm, consistent, and emotionally attuned guidance. (Siegel & Bryson, 2011) At the same time, Daniel Goleman\u2019s work on Emotional Intelligence (1995) brought widespread attention to the value of self-awareness, empathy, and emotional regulation as essential life skills\u2014skills that guidance practices must intentionally nurture.\r\n\r\nModern approaches emphasize positive discipline (Nelsen, 2006), a framework grounded in respect, empathy, and teaching rather than punishment. Programs such as Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) in schools, and parenting models based on connection and coaching, reflect this evidence-based shift. Guidance is now conceived as holistic: supporting children\u2019s cognitive, emotional, social, and moral development in ways that prepare them not only for academic success but also for healthy relationships, civic engagement, and lifelong well-being. (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000)\r\n\r\n
\r\n\r\n

References<\/h2>\r\n
    \r\n \t
  1. Ainsworth, Mary et al. Patterns of Attachment. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1978.<\/li>\r\n \t
  2. Aries, Philippe. Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life. Vintage Books, 1962.<\/li>\r\n \t
  3. Bowlby, John. Attachment and Loss: Volume 1 \u2013 Attachment. 1969.<\/li>\r\n \t
  4. Cunningham, Hugh. Children and Childhood in Western Society Since 1500. Routledge, 2005.<\/li>\r\n \t
  5. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. 1916.<\/li>\r\n \t
  6. Dreikurs, Rudolf. Children: The Challenge. Plume, 1964.<\/li>\r\n \t
  7. Erasmus, Desiderius. On the Education of Children. 1529.<\/li>\r\n \t
  8. Erikson, Erik. Childhood and Society. 1950.<\/li>\r\n \t
  9. Freud, Sigmund. Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. 1905.<\/li>\r\n \t
  10. Freud, Sigmund. Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis. 1917.<\/li>\r\n \t
  11. Hall, G. Stanley. Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, and Religion. 1904.<\/li>\r\n \t
  12. Golden, Mark. Children and Childhood in Classical Athens. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990.<\/li>\r\n \t
  13. Goleman, Daniel. Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Bantuam Books, 1995.<\/li>\r\n \t
  14. Goleman, Daniel. Working with Emotional Intelligence. Bantam Books, 1998<\/li>\r\n \t
  15. Gutek, Gerald L. Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Education: A Biographical Introduction. Pearson, 2014.<\/li>\r\n \t
  16. Heywood, Colin. A History of Childhood: Children and Childhood in the West from Medieval to Modern Times. Polity Press, 2018.<\/li>\r\n \t
  17. Locke, John. Some Thoughts Concerning Education. 1693.<\/li>\r\n \t
  18. Montessori, Maria. The Absorbent Mind. 1949.<\/li>\r\n \t
  19. Nelsen, Jane. Positive Discipline. Ballantine, 2006.<\/li>\r\n \t
  20. Orme, Nicholas. Medieval Children. Yale University Press, 2001.<\/li>\r\n \t
  21. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. \u00c9mile, or On Education. 1762.<\/li>\r\n \t
  22. Shonkoff, Jack P., and Deborah A. Phillips, eds. From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development. National Academies Press, 2000.<\/li>\r\n \t
  23. Siegel, Daniel J., and Tina Payne Bryson. The Whole-Brain Child. Delacorte, 2011.<\/li>\r\n \t
  24. Skinner, B.F. Science and Human Behavior. 1953.<\/li>\r\n \t
  25. Standing, E.M. Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work. Plume, 1998.<\/li>\r\n \t
  26. Watson, John B. Psychological Care of Infant and Child. 1928.<\/li>\r\n<\/ol>","rendered":"

    Early Views<\/h2>\n

    In many ancient civilizations, children were often regarded as just incomplete adults, valued primarily for their future contributions to family survival, labor, and societal continuity. In societies like ancient Greece and Rome, childhood was viewed as a transitional stage leading directly into adult responsibilities. For instance, in Sparta, young boys were subjected to rigorous military training at an early age, reflecting the belief that discipline and endurance were the highest virtues. Similarly, Roman fathers held near-total authority over their children, who were expected to conform to family and societal expectations with little recognition of their developmental needs. (Aries, 1962)<\/p>\n

    Guidance in these societies was not seen as fostering the development of individuals but rather as instilling conformity to social, religious, and political norms. Religious teachings, cultural rituals, and moral codes functioned as the primary forms of guidance, often emphasizing obedience, loyalty, and communal duty over personal growth. (Golden, 1990)<\/p>\n

    Medieval and Renaissance Periods<\/h3>\n

    \"StreetDuring the Middle Ages in Europe, theological interpretations of childhood profoundly shaped views of guidance. Augustine\u2019s doctrine of original sin was very influential. Children were often perceived as inherently bad and in need of correction. This belief justified the widespread use of strict, even harsh, disciplinary methods designed to \u201cbreak the will\u201d of children in order to cultivate obedience and moral virtue. Instruction was often authoritarian, emphasizing memorization of religious texts and rigid conformity to church and family authority. (Orme, 2001)<\/p>\n

    During the Renaissance, there was renewed interest in humanism and education, but the prevailing moral framework still placed heavy emphasis on discipline as a means of curbing sinfulness. Educational practices remained harsh, with corporal punishment commonly being used to enforce obedience. (Heywood, 2018) At the same time, thinkers like Erasmus (1529) began to argue for gentler forms of teaching, suggesting the beginning of a shift toward recognizing the dignity of children, though such ideas were not yet mainstream.<\/p>\n

    The Enlightenment and Changing Views on Childhood<\/h3>\n

    The Enlightenment, also called the Age of Reason, refers to the intellectual and cultural movement that started in the late 1600s through the 18th century in Europe. Among the many changes it ushered in, it sparked a profound rethinking of childhood. Philosophers like John Locke argued that children are born as tabula rasa\u2014blank slates\u2014whose character and intellect are shaped by experience, environment, and education. Locke\u2019s views encouraged more rational, consistent, and nurturing guidance, advocating for moral instruction through reason and example rather than fear. (Locke, 1693)<\/p>\n

    Jean-Jacques Rousseau, however, revolutionized thinking further in his work \u00c9mile (1762), where he described children as innately good and naturally curious. He rejected harsh discipline and instead promoted child-rearing that allowed for natural development, freedom, and experiential learning. (Rousseau, 1762)<\/p>\n

    During the 19th Century, educational reformers such as Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1801) emphasized love, security, and practical activity in education, while Friedrich Froebel (1826) highlighted the importance of play and creativity, founding the kindergarten movement. Together, these shifts laid the groundwork for a child-centered approach, recognizing childhood as a distinct and valuable phase of life, deserving of respect and protection. (Cunningham, 2005)<\/p>\n

    Progress and Change in the 19th Century<\/h3>\n

    \"WorkersThe Industrial Revolution had profound effects on childhood. Many children, some as young as five or six, worked long hours in mines, textile mills, and factories under hazardous conditions that endangered their health and stunted their education (Cunningham, 2005). Reformers and social critics raised concerns about this exploitation, arguing that such labor not only deprived them of a proper childhood but also undermined the moral and intellectual progress of society (Humphries, 2010). These growing concerns fueled political and social movements that pushed for protective legislation, leading to the passage of child labor laws in Britain and the United States, which limited working hours and regulated minimum employment ages.<\/p>\n

    Parallel to these reforms was the rise of compulsory schooling, as governments and educators increasingly recognized education as both a safeguard against exploitation and an essential foundation for a modern, industrialized society (Heywood, 2018). Together, these changes helped establish the modern understanding of childhood as a distinct stage of life requiring protection, nurturing, and education.<\/p>\n

    Early 20th Century Developments<\/h3>\n

    Early in the 20th century, psychology emerged as a distinct discipline, offering new insights into child development and guidance. This marked a pivotal moment in the evolution of our thinking about children in general. G. Stanley Hall, often called the \u201cfather of child psychology,\u201d introduced the concept of adolescence as a unique developmental stage and emphasized the importance of studying children scientifically to understand their needs. (Hall, 1904)<\/p>\n

    John Dewey (1916) advanced progressive education, arguing that learning should be experiential and connected to real life, with guidance focused on fostering problem-solving, democratic values, and cooperation rather than rote obedience. This period also witnessed the rise of psychoanalytic theory with Freud (1905), who underscored the impact of early emotional experiences. Behaviorism, led by John Watson (1928), stressed environmental shaping of behavior through reinforcement.<\/p>\n

    In 1915, Alexander Graham Bell and his wife, strong advocates of Montessori education, helped establish Montessori classrooms in the U.S., and a Montessori classroom was even featured at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco that same year. Soon after, Montessori methods gained visibility in Washington, D.C., including in schools connected with political and social leaders, bringing the approach to the attention of the White House during Wilson\u2019s administration. (Standing, 1998)<\/p>\n

    Collectively, these perspectives shifted guidance from authoritarian practices to approaches grounded in observation, individual differences, and developmental psychology, laying the foundation for evidence-based, child-centered education and parenting. (Gutek, 2014)<\/p>\n

    Expanding Psychological Perspectives of the Mid-Century<\/h3>\n

    During the mid-20th century, there was a surge of psychological theories that transformed understandings of child guidance. Sigmund Freud\u2019s psychoanalytic theory highlighted the role of early childhood experiences, unconscious drives, and family dynamics in shaping personality, suggesting that guidance must be sensitive to emotional needs as well as behavior. (Freud, 1917)<\/p>\n

    Building on this, Erik Erikson (1950) proposed his psychosocial stages of development, emphasizing that children face age-specific crises (such as trust vs. mistrust or autonomy vs. shame) and require supportive guidance to resolve them positively.<\/p>\n

    During this time, behaviorists such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner (1953) advanced the idea that behavior could be shaped through reinforcement and conditioning. Their approaches influenced schools and parenting practices, promoting structured environments with clear expectations and consequences.<\/p>\n

    Yet countering purely behavioral models, Maria Montessori\u2019s educational philosophy regained a lot of interest during the 1950s and 1960s. This was driven by American educators traveling to Europe for Montessori training, and Nancy McCormick Rambusch\u2019s adaptation of the method to American culture and educational systems. Montessori (1949) emphasized respect for children\u2019s autonomy, carefully prepared learning environments, and self-directed exploration as foundations for discipline and guidance.<\/p>\n

    Together, these perspectives created a rich but sometimes competing set of models: one focusing on emotional needs, another on environmental shaping, and yet another on child-led independence.<\/p>\n

    Late 20th Century: Attachment, Human Rights, and Positive Discipline<\/h3>\n

    \"AFrom the 1960s onward, new developments reshaped child guidance in ways that moved beyond authoritarian or purely behavioral frameworks. John Bowlby\u2019s attachment theory revolutionized thinking by demonstrating the crucial role of secure, loving relationships in healthy emotional and social development. (Bowlby, 1969) His work was supported by Mary Ainsworth\u2019s research. (Ainsworth, 1978) Her \u201cStrange Situation\u201d studies, showed that responsive caregiving fosters trust, resilience, and emotional regulation, shifting guidance toward nurturing relational bonds.<\/p>\n

    At the same time, the global child rights movement reframed childhood as a protected stage of life. The United Nations\u2019 Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) established children\u2019s rights to protection, participation, and provision, influencing policy, education, and parenting worldwide.<\/p>\n

    Educational psychology also began emphasizing intrinsic motivation, self-esteem, and democratic classrooms. Rudolf Dreikurs (1964) operationalized much of Alfred Adler\u2019s work with a focus on positive discipline. Guidance increasingly came to be seen as collaborative and respectful, aiming to empower children rather than control them.<\/p>\n

    21st Century: Neuroscience, Emotional Intelligence, and Holistic Guidance<\/h3>\n

    In the 21st century, advances in neuroscience and psychology have deepened our understanding of how children learn, feel, and grow. Brain research has revealed the critical role of early experiences, relationships, and stress regulation in shaping lifelong mental health and learning capacity. These findings reinforce the importance of warm, consistent, and emotionally attuned guidance. (Siegel & Bryson, 2011) At the same time, Daniel Goleman\u2019s work on Emotional Intelligence (1995) brought widespread attention to the value of self-awareness, empathy, and emotional regulation as essential life skills\u2014skills that guidance practices must intentionally nurture.<\/p>\n

    Modern approaches emphasize positive discipline (Nelsen, 2006), a framework grounded in respect, empathy, and teaching rather than punishment. Programs such as Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS) in schools, and parenting models based on connection and coaching, reflect this evidence-based shift. Guidance is now conceived as holistic: supporting children\u2019s cognitive, emotional, social, and moral development in ways that prepare them not only for academic success but also for healthy relationships, civic engagement, and lifelong well-being. (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000)<\/p>\n

    \n

    References<\/h2>\n
      \n
    1. Ainsworth, Mary et al. Patterns of Attachment. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1978.<\/li>\n
    2. Aries, Philippe. Centuries of Childhood: A Social History of Family Life. Vintage Books, 1962.<\/li>\n
    3. Bowlby, John. Attachment and Loss: Volume 1 \u2013 Attachment. 1969.<\/li>\n
    4. Cunningham, Hugh. Children and Childhood in Western Society Since 1500. Routledge, 2005.<\/li>\n
    5. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. 1916.<\/li>\n
    6. Dreikurs, Rudolf. Children: The Challenge. Plume, 1964.<\/li>\n
    7. Erasmus, Desiderius. On the Education of Children. 1529.<\/li>\n
    8. Erikson, Erik. Childhood and Society. 1950.<\/li>\n
    9. Freud, Sigmund. Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality. 1905.<\/li>\n
    10. Freud, Sigmund. Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis. 1917.<\/li>\n
    11. Hall, G. Stanley. Adolescence: Its Psychology and Its Relations to Physiology, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, and Religion. 1904.<\/li>\n
    12. Golden, Mark. Children and Childhood in Classical Athens. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990.<\/li>\n
    13. Goleman, Daniel. Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ. Bantuam Books, 1995.<\/li>\n
    14. Goleman, Daniel. Working with Emotional Intelligence. Bantam Books, 1998<\/li>\n
    15. Gutek, Gerald L. Historical and Philosophical Foundations of Education: A Biographical Introduction. Pearson, 2014.<\/li>\n
    16. Heywood, Colin. A History of Childhood: Children and Childhood in the West from Medieval to Modern Times. Polity Press, 2018.<\/li>\n
    17. Locke, John. Some Thoughts Concerning Education. 1693.<\/li>\n
    18. Montessori, Maria. The Absorbent Mind. 1949.<\/li>\n
    19. Nelsen, Jane. Positive Discipline. Ballantine, 2006.<\/li>\n
    20. Orme, Nicholas. Medieval Children. Yale University Press, 2001.<\/li>\n
    21. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. \u00c9mile, or On Education. 1762.<\/li>\n
    22. Shonkoff, Jack P., and Deborah A. Phillips, eds. From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development. National Academies Press, 2000.<\/li>\n
    23. Siegel, Daniel J., and Tina Payne Bryson. The Whole-Brain Child. Delacorte, 2011.<\/li>\n
    24. Skinner, B.F. Science and Human Behavior. 1953.<\/li>\n
    25. Standing, E.M. Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work. Plume, 1998.<\/li>\n
    26. Watson, John B. Psychological Care of Infant and Child. 1928.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

      Media Attributions<\/h2>