{"id":3003,"date":"2026-06-17T19:15:13","date_gmt":"2026-06-17T19:15:13","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/chapter\/mannerism-and-the-italian-baroque\/"},"modified":"2026-07-16T18:11:16","modified_gmt":"2026-07-16T18:11:16","slug":"mannerism-and-the-italian-baroque","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/chapter\/mannerism-and-the-italian-baroque\/","title":{"raw":"Mannerism and the Italian Baroque","rendered":"Mannerism and the Italian Baroque"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-4\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\r\nIn the late 16<sup>th<\/sup> century, Mannerism was a transitional style between the Renaissance and the Baroque. The historical context of the Baroque period, from c. 1600-1700, is anchored by the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation. Both the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Church\u2019s Counter-Reformation serve as the backdrop for understanding the dramatic style of the Baroque. Across Europe, regional variations of the Baroque style developed, often dependent upon religious affiliation. In Italy, artists like Bernini, Borromini, Caravaggio, and Gentileschi worked for the Catholic Church's Counter-Reformation.\u00a0As such, their works were designed to teach the faithful and inspire a deep connection to the faith.\r\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-4\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Parmigianino,\u00a0<em>Madonna of the Long Neck<\/em>, 1530\u201333, oil on panel<\/li>\r\n \t<li>El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos),\u00a0<em>Adoration of the Shepherds,<\/em>\u00a0ca. 1612 \u2013 1614, oil on canvas<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Gian Lorenzo Bernini,\u00a0<em>David,\u00a0<\/em>1623, marble<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Francesco Borromini, <em>San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane<\/em> (\u201cCarlino\u201d), Rome, Italy, 1638-1646.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Gian Lorenzo Bernini, <em>Saint Peter\u2019s Square<\/em> (Piazza San Pietro), Vatican City, Rome, 1656\u201367<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Michelangelo Buonarotti,\u00a0<em>Last Judgment,\u00a0<\/em>altar wall of the Sistine Chapel, Vatican City, Rome, Italy, 1534-1541, fresco<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Michelangelo Merisi da\u00a0Caravaggio,\u00a0<em>Calling of Saint Matthew<\/em>, c. 1597-1601, oil on canvas<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Artemisia Gentileschi,<em>\u00a0Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em>, 1620-21, oil on canvas<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 id=\"term-list-4\">Term List<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Mannerism<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Figura serpentinata<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Baroque<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Reformation<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Martin Luther<\/li>\r\n \t<li>95 Theses<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Counter-Reformation<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Catholic<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Council of Trent<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Baldacchino (In St. Peter's Basilica)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>(new) St. Peter's Basilica, Rome<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Relic<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Piazza<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Tenebroso (tenebrism)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Caravaggisti<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Momento mori<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2 id=\"mannerism-an-introduction\">Mannerism, an introduction<\/h2>\r\nParasitic. Original. Derogatory. Refined. Hyper-decorative. Courtly. Anti-classical. Classicizing. All of these words (and many more!) have been used to describe mannerist art, which begins in the 16th century. But what\u00a0<em>is\u00a0<\/em>it, and how could it possibly prompt so many contradictory descriptors?\r\n<h3 id=\"what-is-mannerism\">What is mannerism?<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1778\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/uffizi-parmigianino-madonna-long-neck.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/uffizi-parmigianino-madonna-long-neck.jpg\" alt=\"Parmigianino, Madonna of the Long Neck, 1530\u201333 painting of an elongated Virgin Mary holding an elongated Christ child. On Mary's right is a crowd of people while on Mary's left there is a large pillar and a small-scale man holding a scroll. \" width=\"1778\" height=\"2500\" \/><\/a> Parmigianino, <em>Madonna of the Long Neck<\/em>, 1530\u201333, 73 x 60 cm (Uffizi, Florence, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Parmigianino_003b.jpg\">Tetraktys<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nParmigianino\u2019s\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/parmigianino-madonna-of-the-long-neck\/\"><em>Madonna of the Long Neck<\/em><\/a>\u00a0is a famous example of mannerist art. It was painted for the funerary chapel of an Italian noblewoman.\u00a0In the center, the Virgin\u2019s lower body seems to swell, her impossibly long legs swathed in billowing fabric that then clings sensuously to her rapidly tapering torso, revealing her navel and a protruding nipple. Her head, seeming too small for her body, is precariously balanced upon an elongated neck rising from narrow, sloping shoulders.\u00a0Christ\u2019s spindly, bare body stretches across her lap.\u00a0Pressed closely to her right are sensuous yet bizarrely proportioned angels, compressed into the foreground. One angelic figure, showing a long bare leg, holds an elegant antique vase with the tips of his impossibly long fingers. On the right side, a diminutive figure in the lower corner mysteriously holds up a scroll, while the background recedes dramatically into a deep, unfinished space. The architectural space is designed to appear illogical (though it can be reconciled) and the within it figures are mis-proportioned, yet the overall impression is one of elegance and carefully contrived artifice. This effect is enhanced by the use of rich jewel tones and the absence of visible brush marks.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1999\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Raphael_-_Madonna_in_the_Meadow_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Raphael_-_Madonna_in_the_Meadow_-_Google_Art_Project-scaled.jpg\" alt=\"Raphael, Madonna of the Meadow painting depicting a seated woman in a red and blue dress with two young children, one holding a cross-shaped staff. The background features a serene landscape with distant mountains, trees, and a building with domes under a partly cloudy sky.\" width=\"1999\" height=\"2560\" \/><\/a> Raphael, <em>Madonna of the Meadow<\/em>, 1505\u201306, oil on panel, 885 x 1130 cm (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Raphael_-_Madonna_in_the_Meadow_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg\">DcoetzeeBot<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nParmigianino takes us to an otherworldly realm in which the laws of proportion, naturalism, and mathematics do not apply. It is a far cry from the rational classicism of earlier works like\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/raphael-introduction\/\">Raphael\u2019s<\/a>\u00a0<em>Madonna of the Meadow\u00a0<\/em>(from\u00a0what is traditionally called the\u00a0\u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/toward-the-high-renaissance-an-introduction\/\">high renaissance<\/a>\u201c). Here, the Virgin and Christ child, accompanied by the infant John the Baptist, are rendered in\u00a0classical\u00a0proportions and occupy an idealized though believable space. The Virgin\u2019s body is demurely clothed and the children\u2019s plump forms suggest playful vitality. Nowhere do we find the sensuous ambiguity or the irrational geometry of Parmigianino\u2019s creation. Something new is happening in the mannerist image.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1394\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/23674859124_07ae0cd82b_o.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/23674859124_07ae0cd82b_o.jpg\" alt=\"Rosso Fiorentino, The Dead Christ with Angels, c. 1524-7, oil on panel painting of a curved deceased Chris with lifeless skin pallor surrounded by figures. \" width=\"1394\" height=\"1800\" \/><\/a> Rosso Fiorentino,<em> The Dead Christ with Angels,<\/em> c. 1524\u201327, oil on panel, 133.4 x 104.1 cm (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/C54QNh\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"towards-a-definition-of-mannerism\">Towards a definition of mannerism<\/h3>\r\nThe term \u201cmannerism\u201d is not easily defined. It has been used to designate art that is overtly artificial, often ambiguous, and conspicuously sophisticated. However, these are by no means the only stylistic traits associated with this designation. Mannerist imagery frequently pushes the boundaries of fantasy and imagination with artists looking to art, rather than nature, as a model, as Parmigianino was clearly doing in his painting. Mannerism is therefore a confusing term, subject to radically different interpretations. When the term was first widely used in the 17th\u00a0century, it was intended as a pejorative label. It was used to negatively characterize Italian renaissance art created between 1520 and 1600 that was seen by these later audiences as overly stylized and tasteless, a debased departure from the classicism of Raphael and the high renaissance. With the rise of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/expressionism-intro\/\">expressionism<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/who-created-the-first-abstract-artwork\/\">abstraction<\/a>\u00a0in the 20th century, such negative views of this generation of artists subsided. Today, the English term \u201cmannerism\u201d is used to broadly designate 16th-century art throughout Europe (and even in places like the Americas in the 16th and 17th centuries) that is conspicuously artificial, often emotionally provocative, and designed to impress.\r\n\r\nIn sixteenth-century Italy, where what we now call mannerism is first evident, the term \u201cmannerism\u201d did not exist. What we do find is \u201c<em>maniera<\/em>,\u201d a term rooted in the word\u00a0<em>mano<\/em>\u00a0(hand). It was used in a straight forward way by contemporaries to simply designate style. The styles that the word\u00a0<em>maniera\u00a0<\/em>was used to describe were as varied as way the word style might be used today. Audrey Hepburn had style. So did\u00a0David Bowie.\r\n\r\n<em>Maniera<\/em>\u00a0was also used in the 16th century to suggest \u201cstylishness\u201d itself, a self-conscious,\u00a0artificial artistry that at times privileged fantasy over reality. Artists displaying\u00a0<em>maniera<\/em>\u00a0may consciously exploit their technical skill but ideally did so with seeming effortlessness, like we see in Parmigianino\u2019s\u00a0<em>Madonna of the Long Neck<\/em>. Artistic departures from visual reality were intended to demonstrate invention and refinement, learning and grace. One way to understand mannerism, popularized by late 20th-century scholars, is to think of it as the \u201cstylish-style.\u201d\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/berruguete-and-laocoon.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/berruguete-and-laocoon-scaled.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph of two classical sculptures depicting mythological scenes with human figures entwined by serpents. Left sculpture features two figures with one standing and the other crouching, both with painted details, while right sculpture shows a muscular central figure struggling against multiple serpents, carved in white marble.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1541\" \/><\/a> Left: Alonso Berruguete, <em>Abraham and Isaac<\/em>, 1526\u20131532, polychromed wood, (89 x 46 x 32 cm) (Museo Nacional de Escultura, Valladolid; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/WqLY9K\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u00a0Iglesia en Valladolid<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>); right: Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons<\/em>, early first century C.E., marble, 7\u201910 1\/2\u2033 high (Vatican Museums; photo:<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/AjTuNU\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u00a0Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nRather than seeing such images as breaking with renaissance visual developments, scholars now recognize mannerist imagery as continuing those explorations in new ways. While the artworks might seem to diverge from classical forms, these artists did actually invent new ways of engaging with the ancient past. One of the most influential artworks for mannerist artists\u00a0was the Hellenistic sculpture of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/athanadoros-hagesandros-and-polydoros-of-rhodes-laocoon-and-his-sons\/\">Laoco\u00f6n and his sons<\/a>, whose twisting, contorted bodies appealed to a variety of artists of this time, including the Burgundian artist Juan de Juni (who worked in Spain), Domenicos Theotokopoulos (known as El Greco), Alonso Berruguete, and Francesco Primaticcio. Berruguete frequently adapted aspects of the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n<\/em>\u00a0in his sculpture to heighten the emotional expressiveness of his saintly figures, such as we find in his\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/alonso-berruguete-abraham-and-isaac\/\">Abraham and Isaac<\/a>.<\/em>\r\n<h3 id=\"why-mannerism\">Why mannerism?<\/h3>\r\nWhy do these elegant explorations take place after 1520? While there is no easy answer for the style\u2019s emergence at this time, historical and religious developments, the tastes of powerful\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/overview\/courses\/patrons-in-the-renaissance\/\">patrons<\/a>, and the rising social status of the artist may all be key factors. Mannerism first developed in central Italy in the cities of Rome and Florence and it quickly spread. The reasons are many. The early and mid-16th century was a period of enormous social, economic, and political change witnessing the spread of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-protestant-reformation\/\">Protestantism<\/a>\u00a0and the wars of religion that followed. The rise of capitalism and absolutism, colonization and exploitation of new lands and peoples, and new developments in the science of anatomy and optics\u00a0also add to the era\u2019s complexity.\u00a0Some have attributed the new stylistic explorations of the period to a general neurosis resulting from this shifting context. The new contorted and exaggerated forms are deliberately unbalanced like the 16th century itself.\r\n\r\nWhile mannerist qualities are found in secular works, like Bronzino\u2019s\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bronzino-an-allegory-with-venus-and-cupid\/\"><em>Allegory with Venus and Cupid<\/em><\/a>, this otherworldly, fantastical stylishness may have served a particular function for sacred subjects. The distortion, ambiguity, and supernatural beauty of many mannerist works may have heightened their emotional appeal to Christian audiences, inspiring a deeply personal devotional experience appropriate to this era of religious upheaval. On the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-renaissance-in-spain\/\">Iberian Peninsula<\/a>, mannerist artists like Berruguete or the painter Luis de Morales forged an expressive visual language that encouraged profoundly emotional and ecstatic religious devotion.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1200\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/morales-louvre.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/morales-louvre.jpg\" alt=\"Luis de Morales, Piedad, 1565 oil on panel of a deceased Chris bleeding from a chest wound held by the Virgin Mary clad in blue. \" width=\"1200\" height=\"1516\" \/><\/a> Luis de Morales, <em>Piedad<\/em>, 1565 oil on panel, 1.25 x .96 m (Louvre, Paris; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_-_Luis_de_Morales_-_Piet%C3%A0_-_Ensemble.JPG\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">MOSSOT<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nMannerist art has been associated with the tastes of aristocratic patrons, particularly those within court circles where displays of wealth and appreciation for beautiful things helped cultivate an elite persona. The self-conscious artifice and deliberate complexity of these works would have appealed to patrons who were familiar with recent artistic developments and eager to show off their knowledge and good taste. The general rise in the status of the artist\u2014particularly in central Italy where mannerism first developed over the course of the renaissance, may also have contributed to a rising taste in art that reflected an artist\u2019s individual style. Previously, artists were regarded as humble craftsmen, practitioners of the \u201cmechanical arts.\u201d By the 1520s\u2014thanks in part to high renaissance artists like\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/europe-1300-1800\/italy-16th-century\/michelangelo\/\">Michelangelo<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/raphael-introduction\/\">Raphael<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/who-was-albrecht-durer\/\">Albrecht D\u00fcrer<\/a>\u00a0and others\u2014visual artists could claim status as practitioners of a \u201cliberal art,\u201d placing them alongside scholars, poets, and\u00a0other\u00a0humanists. The stylistically specific creations of individual visual artists were increasingly valued as precious records of their individual ingenuity and intellect, it meant something to own a \u201cD\u00fcrer\u201d or a \u201cTitian.\u201d The pronounced stylishness of mannerist imagery unmistakably marked these works as creations of a unique maker.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-first-mannerist-artists\">The first mannerist artists<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2316\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/sala-dei-giganti.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/sala-dei-giganti.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph of a detailed ceiling and wall fresco depicting numerous human figures among clouds, arranged in a circular, spiral-like composition around a central architectural element. The artwork features vibrant colors, dynamic poses, and a dramatic use of light and shadow, creating a sense of depth and movement in a classical or baroque style.\" width=\"2316\" height=\"1144\" \/><\/a> Left: Giulio Romano, Wall and partial ceiling of the <em>Sala dei Giganti<\/em>, 1528\u201330, Palazzo T\u00e8, Mantua (photo: Web Gallery of Art); right: Giulio Romano, Ceiling of the <em>Sala dei Giganti<\/em>, 1528\u201330, Palazzo T\u00e8, Mantua (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ceiling_of_the_Room_of_the_giants_in_Palazzo_Te,_Mantua.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Livioandronico2013<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nMannerist visual strategies have local beginnings (from what we can tell) in Central Italy, although they begin to spread rapidly after their introduction. We find elements of the\u00a0<em>maniera<\/em>\u00a0among Raphael\u2019s followers, such as in the work of Giulio Romano, who, along with Gian Francesco Penni, took over Raphael\u2019s workshop in Rome upon the master\u2019s untimely death. His work at Palazzo T\u00e8 (the pleasure villa of Federico II Gonzaga of Mantua), like the frescoes in the\u00a0<em>Sala dei Giganti\u00a0<\/em>(Hall of the Giants), is a creative interpretation of and playful riff upon the classical tradition, continuing renaissance fascination with the ancient past. Powerful, elongated figures writhe across painted walls and ceiling that are reminiscent of ancient\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/battle-of-the-romans-and-barbarians-ludovisi-battle-sarcophagus\/\">sarcophagi<\/a>. At the Palazzo, Romano even developed architectural spaces that appear to dissolve in place like ancient ruins.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/LastJudgMortel-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/LastJudgMortel-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Michelangelo, Last Judgment, Sistine Chapel, altar wall fresco covering an entire chapel wall depicting numerous human figures in dynamic poses against a blue sky background. The artwork features detailed scenes of judgment and resurrection, with vibrant colors and intricate compositions framed by architectural elements and windows.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1739\" \/><\/a> Michelangelo, <em>Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel, altar wall, fresco, 1534-1541 (Vatican City, Rome) (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/smoel\/3721836114\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Ramon Stoppelenburg<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWhile Michelangelo\u00a0is typically associated with what is called high renaissance art, he also helped to shape the powerful visual language of what we now call the\u00a0<em>maniera<\/em>. Michelangelo\u2019s\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-last-judgment\/\"><em>Last Judgement<\/em><\/a>, painted upon the altar wall of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-ceiling-of-the-sistine-chapel\/\">Sistine Chapel<\/a>, is a complicated and intentionally terrifying vision of the end of time. With disconcerting jumps in scale, nude figures in contorted poses are spread across a blue sky, their souls and bodies bared before God as they either rise in glory or are crushed in despair. Michelangelo\u2019s figures are heavy, their musculature overemphasized\u2014these are the bodies of the afterlife, rooted in the artist\u2019s imagination and the brawny nudes of antiquity rather than reality. His\u00a0<em>maniera\u00a0<\/em>is unmistakable.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1589\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/7806204022_369b318a1c_o-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/7806204022_369b318a1c_o-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Pontormo, Entombment (or Deposition from the Cross), oil on panel painting depicting the Lamentation over the Dead Christ, featuring multiple figures surrounding the lifeless body of Jesus. The composition includes vibrant colors, detailed drapery, and expressive postures, emphasizing grief and reverence within a classical arched frame.\" width=\"1589\" height=\"2560\" \/><\/a> Pontormo,<em> Entombment (or Deposition from the Cross),<\/em> oil on panel, 1525\u201328, Capponi Chapel, Santa Felicit\u00e0, Florence (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/cTNQuw\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nEarly mannerist qualities are found in the work of Florentine painter Andrea del Sarto, and his followers Jacopo Pontormo and Rosso Fiorentino. Pontormo\u2019s\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/jacopo-pontormo-entombment-or-deposition-from-the-cross\/\">Deposition (or Entombment)<\/a>,<\/em>\u00a0created for the Capponi Chapel,\u00a0has figures swirling across the picture plane, dislocated in time and space.\u00a0No narrative elements, like the cross and concrete environment of Fra Angelico\u2019s 1432\u00a0<em>Deposition<\/em>, serve to ground and clarify the image. The contorted figures and bizarre use of color recall more the work of Michelangelo than they do visual reality.\r\n\r\nAmbiguous compositions, like Pontormo\u2019s\u00a0<em>Deposition<\/em>, seem to require sophisticated audiences already familiar with both visual and spiritual traditions. At the same time, a case may be made for the broader public appeal of such imagery. While the references to and departures from artistic tradition may not have been readily appreciated by non-elites, the disorienting effect of the image may have indeed spoken to any viewer familiar with the unsettling effects of grief.\r\n<h3 id=\"mannerism-on-the-move\">Mannerism on the move<\/h3>\r\nThe forms explored by mannerist artists spread rapidly to other parts of Italy and to parts of northern Europe, the Iberian Peninsula, the Americas, and even Asia. In each area, mannerism developed differently, reflecting regional visual traditions, as well as cultural, political, and religious formations.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1000\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/P1290817_Fontainebleau_chateau_rwk.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/P1290817_Fontainebleau_chateau_rwk.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate, long hallway with wooden parquet flooring, intricate carved wooden paneling, and large paintings above the paneling on both sides. The ceiling features detailed woodwork and chandeliers, with natural light streaming through tall windows, highlighting the historical and artistic grandeur of the space.\" width=\"1000\" height=\"759\" \/><\/a> Gallery of Francis I, Ch\u00e2teau de Fontainebleau, 1528\u20131540 (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Galerie_Fran%C3%A7ois_Ier#\/media\/File:P1290817_Fontainebleau_chateau_rwk.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Mbzt<\/a>\u00a0, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAfter the sack of Rome in 1527, the French King, Francis I, brought mannerist art to France by importing the Florentine artists Rosso Fiorentino and Benvenuto Cellini, as well as Francesco Primaticcio (who had trained with Giulio Romano). Under Francis\u2019s patronage, these artists helped transform a rugged hunting lodge into the spectacular\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/french-mannerism-fontainebleau\/\">palace of Fontainebleau<\/a>, and where a new form of mannerism would influence generations of French artists. The Italian Jesuit artist\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bitti-coronation-virgin\/\">Bernardo Bitti<\/a>\u00a0would emigrate to Lima in the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-the-spanish-viceroyalties-in-the-americas\/\">Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru<\/a>, and paint large-scale paintings with the classicizing visual language of the\u00a0<em>maniera<\/em>.\r\n\r\nArtists from other European regions also trained in Italy, absorbing mannerist tendencies. Spanish artist Luis de Vargas spent time in Italy with artists like Sebastiano del Piombo and Giorgio Vasari (among others), bringing back what he learned and adapted to the Iberian Peninsula. Vargas would create elaborate retablos (altarpieces) filled with painting and sculpture, for the Cathedral and the Church of Santa Cruz in Seville.\r\n\r\nLikewise, the Flemish painter Maarten de Vos, who is thought to have spent time in the workshop of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/tintoretto-last-supper\/\">Tintoretto<\/a>\u00a0(a Venetian mannerist artist), created images infused with rich color, elegant elongated figures, and an overtly decorative style. Engravings of De Vos\u2019s works circulated across Europe, and eventually found their way across the Atlantic Ocean to the Spanish viceroyalties.\r\n\r\nIn Prague, under the patronage of Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II, the Dutch printmaker Hendrik Goltzius produced numerous engravings, such as\u00a0<em>Apollo,\u00a0<\/em>1588, notable for their dramatic gestures, flamboyant figure treatment, and conspicuous display of artistic virtuosity.\u00a0Goltzius would become one of the most influential mannerist printmakers of his day.\u00a0Goltzius borrowed mannerist strategies from Bartholomaeus Spranger, a Flemish artist who studied and traveled in Italy, and brought drawings and ideas back to Rudolph II\u2019s court.\r\n\r\nSimply put, the spread of mannerism was global.\r\n<h3 id=\"why-mannerism-matters\">Why mannerism matters<\/h3>\r\nThe ambiguity of mannerism and often sensuous treatment of figures proved problematic for some. The Reformation brought with it a new scrutiny of religious images. The Augustinian monk Martin Luther and other Protestant leaders were concerned that images could mislead or be treated as idols. While the Catholic Church never wavered in its commitment to the validity of images as tools for religious practice, the style of religious art did become an issue. At the Council of Trent (1545\u20131563), a series of meetings intended to solidify Catholic doctrine and strengthen the threatened church, it was declared that religious images must be clear, unambiguous, and lead viewers to faithful contemplation. Art should be for celebrating and instructing in the faith, not for showcasing artistic skill. The sensuosity, ambiguity, and conspicuous artistry of mannerism was not to be tolerated in sacred art.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1077\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/The-Adoration-of-the-Shepherds.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/The-Adoration-of-the-Shepherds.jpg\" alt=\"El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos), Adoration of the Shepherds painting depicting the Nativity scene with Mary holding baby Jesus surrounded by adoring figures and angels above. The composition uses dramatic lighting and rich colors like red, blue, green, and yellow to highlight key figures and create a sense of divine presence.\" width=\"1077\" height=\"1920\" \/><\/a> El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos), <em>Adoration of the Shepherds<\/em>, c. 1612\u20131614, oil on canvas, 126 x 71\u2033 \/ 319 x 180 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.museodelprado.es\/en\/the-collection\/art-work\/the-adoration-of-the-shepherds\/4fb170c0-d4cf-4c3e-8293-a8d7152aff78\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid<\/a>, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:The_Adoration_of_the_Shepherds,_El_Greco.jpg\">Tiberioclaudio99<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThis call for conservatism in art on the part of the Catholic\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/protestant-reformation-part-4-of-4\/\">Counter Reformation<\/a>, the movement behind the Council of Trent, did not bring an end to mannerist explorations. The style continued in new ways and across the global Catholic landscape. Devout Catholics, such as the Duke of Florence, Cosimo I de\u2019Medici (who was eager to garner the Pope\u2019s approval in his quest to become Grand Duke of Tuscany), continued to patronize mannerist forms\u00a0in paint and stone\u2014and even tapestries. El Greco, an artist who is thought to almost perfectly embody the Counter-Reformation Church\u2019s desire to produce emotionally affective religious works, borrowed a great deal from mannerism. In fact, El Greco\u2019s work demonstrates that mannerism extends beyond the sixteenth century, attesting once again to the ways in which visual strategies ebbed and flowed differently in various parts of the world.\r\n\r\nLater artists are indebted to the mannerists. The dynamic compositions, rich color choices, and dramatic brushwork of later\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-baroque-art\/\">Baroque<\/a>\u00a0traditions all owe a debt to mannerist experimentation.\r\n<h2 id=\"el-greco-adoration-of-the-shepherds\">El Greco,\u00a0<em>Adoration of the Shepherds<\/em><\/h2>\r\nA Greek painter who settled in Spain, El Greco is known for his elongated figures, idiosyncratic color, and emotive spirituality.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=3_-hYeuJTzQ\r\n<h2 id=\"baroque-art-an-introduction\">Baroque art, an introduction<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2048\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/52293495511_d288ecc996_k.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/52293495511_d288ecc996_k.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph of Gian Lorenzo Bernini, View to Cathedra Petri (or Chair of St. Peter) showing an ornate altar inside a grand cathedral, featuring a central sculptural group illuminated by a glowing circular stained glass window with a dove symbol. The altar is framed by four large twisted columns and surrounded by intricate architectural details, including tall marble pillars and elaborate gold decorations on the ceiling\" width=\"2048\" height=\"1359\" \/><\/a> Gian Lorenzo Bernini, View to <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bernini-cathedra-petri-chair-of-st-peter\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cathedra Petri\u00a0<\/a>(or Chair of St. Peter), 1647\u201353, gilded bronze, gold, wood, stained glass (Apse of Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City, Rome; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nEZQkz\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"rome-from-the-whore-of-babylon-to-the-resplendent-bride-of-christ\">Rome: From the \u201cWhore of Babylon\u201d to the resplendent bride of Christ<\/h3>\r\nWhen\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-protestant-reformation\/\">Martin Luther<\/a>\u00a0tacked his 95 theses to the doors of Wittenberg Cathedral in 1517, protesting the Catholic Church\u2019s corruption, he initiated a movement that would transform the religious, political, and artistic landscape of Europe. For the next century, Europe would be in turmoil as new political and religious boundaries were determined, often through bloody military conflicts. Only in 1648, with the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia, did the conflicts between Protestants and Catholics subside in continental Europe.\r\n\r\nMartin Luther focused his critique on what he saw as the Church\u2019s greed and abuse of power. He called Rome, the seat of papal power, \u201cthe whore of Babylon,\u201d decked out in the finery of expensive art, grand architecture, and sumptuous banquets. The Church responded to the crisis in two ways: by internally addressing issues of corruption and by defending the doctrines rejected by the Protestants. Thus, while the first two decades of the 16th century were a period of lavish spending for the Papacy, the middle decades were a period of austerity. As one visitor to Rome noted in the 1560s, the entire city had become a convent. Piety and asceticism ruled the day.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/Annibale_Carracci_e_Caravaggio_Cappella_Cerasi-scaled.jpeg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Annibale_Carracci_e_Caravaggio_Cappella_Cerasi-scaled-1.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate chapel interior featuring three large religious paintings framed by intricate marble and gold architectural details. Central painting depicts a seated figure surrounded by disciples, while side paintings show dramatic biblical scenes with vivid colors and dynamic compositions.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1689\" \/><\/a> View of the Cerasi Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome with Annibale Carracci\u2019s altarpiece, <em>The Assumption of the Virgin<\/em>, 1600\u201301, oil on canvas, 245 cm \u00d7 155 cm, and paintings by Caravaggio on the side walls (The Crucifixion of St. Peter on the left, and The Conversion of Paul on the right) (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/CCZ3EA\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Frederick Fenyvessy<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nBy the end of the 16th century, the Catholic Church was once again feeling optimistic, even triumphant. It had emerged from the crisis with renewed vigor and clarity of purpose. Shepherding the faithful\u2014instructing them on Catholic doctrines and inspiring virtuous behavior\u2014took center stage. Keen to rebuild Rome\u2019s reputation as a holy city, the Papacy embarked on extensive building and decoration campaigns aimed at highlighting its ancient origins, its beliefs, and its divinely sanctioned authority. In the eyes of faithful Catholics, Rome was not an unfaithful whore, but a pure bride, beautifully adorned for her union with her divine spouse.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-art-of-persuasion-to-instruct-to-delight-to-move\">The art of persuasion: To instruct, to delight, to move<\/h3>\r\nWhile the Protestants harshly criticized the cult of images, the Catholic Church ardently\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-council-of-trent-and-the-call-to-reform-art\/\">embraced the religious power of art<\/a>. The visual arts, the Church argued, played a key role in guiding the faithful. They were certainly as important as the written and spoken word, and perhaps even more important since they were accessible to the learned and the unlearned alike. In order to be effective in its pastoral role, religious art had to be clear, persuasive, and powerful. Not only did it have to instruct, but it also had to inspire. It had to move the faithful to feel the reality of Christ\u2019s sacrifice, the suffering of the martyrs, and the visions of the saints.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2119\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/GG_307_Gesamt_x.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/GG_307_Gesamt_x.jpg\" alt=\"Caravaggio, The Crowning with Thorns Baroque painting depicting a scene of intense emotion and physical interaction, featuring four men with three holding sticks and one armored figure observing. The central figure, Christ, draped in a red cloth, is bent forward, highlighting themes of suffering and conflict through dramatic lighting and realistic human forms.\" width=\"2119\" height=\"1595\" \/><\/a> Caravaggio, <em>The Crowning with Thorns<\/em>, 1602\u201304, oil on canvas, 165.5 x 127 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.khm.at\/objektdb\/detail\/427\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna<\/a>, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Michelangelo_Merisi,_called_Caravaggio_-_The_Crowning_with_Thorns_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Church\u2019s emphasis on art\u2019s pastoral role prompted\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/global-baroque-introduction\/\">artists to experiment<\/a>\u00a0with new and more direct means of engaging the viewer. Artists like\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/caravaggio-and-caravaggisti-in-17th-century-europe\/\">Caravaggio<\/a>\u00a0turned to a powerful and dramatic realism, accentuated by bold contrasts of light and dark, and tightly cropped compositions that enhance the physical and emotional immediacy of the depicted narrative.\r\n\r\nOther artists, like\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/annibale-carracci-christ-appearing-to-saint-peter-on-the-appian-way\/\">Annibale Carracci<\/a>\u00a0(who also experimented with realism), ultimately settled on a more classical visual language, inspired by the vibrant palette, idealized forms, and balanced compositions of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/toward-the-high-renaissance-an-introduction\/\">High Renaissance<\/a>. Still others, like\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/il-gesu-rome\/\">Giovanni Battista Gaulli<\/a>, turned to daring feats of illusionism that blurred not only the boundaries between painting, sculpture, and architecture, but also those between the real and depicted worlds. In so doing, the divine was made physically present and palpable.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1420\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/G.B.Gaulli-Triumph_of_the_Name_of_Jesus-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/G.B.Gaulli-Triumph_of_the_Name_of_Jesus-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Giovanni Battista Gaulli, The Triumph of the Name of Jesus, Baroque ceiling fresco depicting a dramatic heavenly scene with numerous angels, saints, and divine figures surrounded by golden architectural elements. The fresco features dynamic movement, vivid colors, and intricate details framed by sculpted white figures and elaborate gold decorations.\" width=\"1420\" height=\"2560\" \/><\/a> Giovanni Battista Gaulli, also known as il Baciccio, <em>The Triumph of the Name of Jesus<\/em>, 1672\u201385, Il Ges\u00f9 ceiling fresco (Rome, Italy; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:G.B.Gaulli-Triumph_of_the_Name_of_Jesus.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">LivioAndronico<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWhether through shocking realism, dynamic movement, or exuberant ornamentation, seventeenth-century art is meant to impress. It aims to convince the viewer of the truth of its message by impacting the senses, awakening the emotions, and activating\u2014even sharing\u2014the viewer\u2019s space.\r\n<h3 id=\"baroquethe-word-the-style-the-period\">\u201cBaroque\u201d\u2014the word, the style, the period<\/h3>\r\nIn the context of European history, the period from c. 1585 to c. 1700\/1730 is often called the Baroque era. The word \u201cbaroque\u201d derives from the Portuguese and Spanish words for a large, irregularly shaped pearl (\u201c<em>barroco<\/em>\u201d and \u201c<em>barrueco<\/em>,\u201d respectively). Eighteenth-century critics were the first to apply the term to the art of the 17th century. It was not a term of praise. To the eyes of these critics, who favored the restraint and order of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/neoclassicism-an-introduction\/\">Neoclassicism<\/a>, the works of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bernini-david-2\/\">Bernini<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/borromini-san-carlo-alle-quattro-fontane\/\">Borromini<\/a>, and Pietro da Cortona appeared bizarre, absurd, even diseased\u2014in other words, misshapen, like an imperfect pearl.\r\n\r\nBy the middle of the 19th century, the word had lost its pejorative implications and was used to describe the ornate and complex qualities present in many examples of 17th-century art, music, and literature. Eventually, the term came to designate the historical period as a whole.\r\n\r\nIn the context of the painting, for example, the stark realism of<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/zurbaran-the-martyrdom-of-saint-serapion\/\">\u00a0Zurbar\u00e1n<\/a>\u2019s altarpieces, the quiet intimacy of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/johannes-vermeer-the-glass-of-wine\/\">Vermeer<\/a>\u2019s domestic interiors, and the restrained classicism of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/nicolas-poussin-landscape-with-saint-john-on-patmos\/\">Poussin<\/a>\u2019s landscapes are all \u201cBaroque\u201d (now with a capital \u201cB\u201d to indicate the historical period), regardless of the absence of the stylistic traits originally associated with the term.\r\n\r\nScholars continue to debate the validity of this label, admitting the usefulness of having a label for this distinct historical period, while also acknowledging its limitations in characterizing the variety of artistic styles present in the 17th century.\r\n<h2 id=\"how-to-recognize-baroque-art-with-berninis-david\">How to recognize Baroque art with Bernini\u2019s <em>David<\/em><\/h2>\r\nPainted and sculpted bodies move into our space. Everything feels like it\u2019s in motion, including the light.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=EFHPAbHaoqk\r\n<h2 id=\"introduction-to-baroque-architecture\">Introduction to Baroque Architecture<\/h2>\r\nLike its sculpture and painting counterparts, Baroque architecture focused on the dramatic. Renaissance architecture emphasized symmetry and balance often relying on the regular forms of circles and squares, such as with Bramante\u2019s <em>Tempietto<\/em>. In contrast, Baroque architecture utilized the trapezoid, the oval, diagonal lines, and theatrical spaces. Often working on a large-scale, architects like Bernini and Borromini were working for the Counter-Reformation Catholic Church. Architectural spaces designed in the context of the Counter-Reformation reaffirmed the power and authority of the Catholic Church while appearing dynamic and visually engaging for the viewer.\r\n<h2 id=\"francesco-borromini-san-carlo-alle-quattro-fontane-rome\">Francesco Borromini, San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome<\/h2>\r\nA Baroque architect whose idiosyncratic use of curves was nonetheless based on geometry, Borromini built complex and sometimes controversial designs.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=r1B3UkErHes\r\n<h2 id=\"gian-lorenzo-bernini-saint-peters-square\">Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Saint Peter\u2019s Square<\/h2>\r\nA sculptor, architect, and painter, Gian Lorenzo Bernini\u2019s stone carving and innovation in dynamic architectural spaces was in service of the Counter-Reformation. Central to the Counter Reformation, Bernini\u2019s double colonnades activate Saint Peter\u2019s and reach out into the city.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=9UT43MHdTIg\r\n<h2 id=\"gian-lorenzo-bernini-baldacchino-saint-peters\">Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Baldacchino, Saint Peter\u2019s<\/h2>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=EFsaaK1w2Ao\r\n<h2 id=\"michelangelo-last-judgment-sistine-chapel\">Michelangelo,\u00a0<em>Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1691\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/LastJudgement.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/LastJudgement.jpg\" alt=\"Michelangelo, Last Judgment, Sistine Chapel, altar wall fresco covering an entire chapel wall depicting numerous human figures in dynamic poses against a blue sky background. The artwork features detailed scenes of judgment and resurrection, with vibrant colors and intricate compositions framed by architectural elements and windows.\" width=\"1691\" height=\"1295\" \/><\/a> Michelangelo,<em> Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel, altar wall, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome) (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/HTbiqQ\">Francisco Anzola<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n\u201cHe will come to judge the living and the dead.\u201d from the Apostle\u2019s Creed, an early statement of Christian belief\r\n\r\nThis is it. The moment all\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christianity-an-introduction\/\">Christians<\/a>\u00a0await with both hope and dread. This is the end of time, the beginning of eternity when the mortal becomes immortal, when the elect join Christ in his heavenly kingdom and the damned are cast into the unending torments of hell. What a daunting task: to visualize the endgame of earthly existence\u2014and furthermore, to do so in the Sistine Chapel, the private chapel of the papal court, where the leaders of the Church gathered to celebrate feast day liturgies, where the pope\u2019s body was laid in state before his funeral, and where\u2014to this day\u2014the College of Cardinals meets to elect the next pope.\r\n\r\nNo artist in sixteenth-century Italy was better positioned for this task than\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/who-was-michelangelo\/\">Michelangelo<\/a>, whose completion of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-ceiling-of-the-sistine-chapel\/\">chapel\u2019s ceiling<\/a>\u00a0in 1512 had sealed his reputation as the greatest master of the human figure\u2014especially the male nude. Pope Paul III was well aware of this when he charged Michelangelo with repainting the chapel\u2019s altar wall with the Last Judgment. With its focus on the resurrection of the body, this was the perfect subject for Michelangelo.\r\n<h3 id=\"historical-pictorial-contexts\">Historical &amp; pictorial contexts<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"785\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Portrait_of_Pope_Paul_III_Farnese_by_Titian_-_National_Museum_of_Capodimonte.jpeg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Portrait_of_Pope_Paul_III_Farnese_by_Titian_-_National_Museum_of_Capodimonte.jpeg\" alt=\"Titian, Portrait of Pope Paul III painting depicts a seated man wearing a rich red velvet robe with white sleeves, highlighting textures and folds of fabric. The composition emphasizes the subject's dignified posture and detailed hands, suggesting his religious significance.\" width=\"785\" height=\"1024\" \/><\/a> Titian, <em>Portrait of Pope Paul III<\/em>, c. 1543, oil on canvas, 113.3 x 88.8 cm (Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Portrait_of_Pope_Paul_III_Farnese_(by_Titian)_-_National_Museum_of_Capodimonte.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe\u00a0<em>Last Judgment<\/em>\u00a0was one of the first art works Paul III commissioned upon his election to the papacy in 1534. The church he inherited was in crisis; the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/sack-of-rome\/\">Sack of Rome<\/a>\u00a0(1527) was still a recent memory. Paul sought to address not only the many abuses that had sparked the\u00a0Protestant Reformation, but also to affirm the legitimacy of the Catholic Church and the orthodoxy of its doctrines (including the institution of the papacy). The visual arts would play a key role in his agenda, beginning with the message he directed to his inner circle by commissioning the Last Judgment.\r\n\r\nThe decorative program of the Sistine Chapel encapsulates the history of salvation. It begins with God\u2019s creation of the world and his covenant with the people of Israel (represented in the Old Testament scenes on the ceiling and south wall), and continues with the earthly\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/standard-scenes-from-the-life-of-christ-in-art\/\">life of Christ<\/a>\u00a0(on the north wall). The addition of the Last Judgment completed the narrative. The papal court, representatives of the earthly church, participated in this narrative; it filled the gap between Christ\u2019s life and his\u00a0Second Coming.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-composition\">The composition<\/h3>\r\nMichelangelo\u2019s\u00a0<em>Last Judgment<\/em>\u00a0is among the most powerful renditions of this moment in the history of Christian art. Over 300 muscular figures, in an infinite variety of dynamic poses, fill the wall to its edges. Unlike the scenes on the walls and the ceiling, the\u00a0<em>Last Judgment<\/em>\u00a0is not bound by a painted border. It is all encompassing and expands beyond the viewer\u2019s field of vision. Unlike other sacred narratives, which portray events of the past, this one implicates the viewer. It has yet to happen and when it does, the viewer will be among those whose fate is determined.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"930\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/930px-Last_Judgement_Michelangelo.jpeg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/930px-Last_Judgement_Michelangelo.jpeg\" alt=\"Michelangelo, Last Judgment, Sistine Chapel, altar wall fresco painting depicting the Last Judgment with Christ at the center surrounded by angels, saints, and resurrected souls ascending or descending. The composition features vibrant colors, dynamic poses, and a dramatic contrast between saved figures on the right and damned souls on the left, illustrating themes of salvation and damnation.\" width=\"930\" height=\"1024\" \/><\/a> Michelangelo,<em> Last Judgment,<\/em> Sistine Chapel, altar wall, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nDespite the density of figures, the composition is clearly organized into tiers and quadrants, with subgroups and meaningful pairings that facilitate the fresco\u2019s legibility. As a whole, it rises on the left and descends on the right, recalling the scales used for the weighing of souls in many depictions of the Last Judgment.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2189\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/DetailCenter.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/DetailCenter.jpg\" alt=\"Detail of Christ at the center surrounded by Mary, angels, saints with Christ's right hand raised above his head. \" width=\"2189\" height=\"1249\" \/><\/a> Christ, Mary, and Saints (detail), Michelangelo, <em>Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel, altar wall, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nChrist is the fulcrum of this complex composition. A powerful, muscular figure, he steps forward in a twisting gesture that sets in motion the final sorting of souls (the damned on his left, and the blessed on his right). Nestled under his raised arm is the Virgin Mary. Michelangelo changed her pose from one of open-armed pleading on humanity\u2019s behalf\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/euploos.uffizi.it\/scheda-catalogo.php?invn=170+S\">seen in a preparatory drawing<\/a>, to one of acquiescence to Christ\u2019s judgment. The time for intercession is over. Judgment has been passed.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1110\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Angel.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Angel.jpg\" alt=\"Detail of Last Judgement with angels trumpeting in front of a blue background. \" width=\"1110\" height=\"1297\" \/><\/a> Angels (detail), Michelangelo, <em>Last Judgment,<\/em> Sistine Chapel, altar wall, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nDirectly below Christ a group of wingless angels (left), their cheeks puffed with effort, sound the trumpets that call the dead to rise, while two others hold open the books recording the deeds of the resurrected. The angel with the book of the damned emphatically angles its down to show the damned that their fate is justly based on their misdeeds.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1484\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/TheDead.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/TheDead.jpg\" alt=\"The dead rise from their graves and float to heaven, some assisted by angels. In the upper right, a couple is pulled to heaven on rosary beads, and just below that a risen body is caught in violent tug of war (detail), Michelangelo, Last Judgment\" width=\"1484\" height=\"1800\" \/><\/a> The dead rise from their graves and float to heaven, some assisted by angels. In the upper right, a couple is pulled to heaven on rosary beads, and just below that a risen body is caught in violent tug of war (detail), Michelangelo,<em> Last Judgment,<\/em> Sistine Chapel, altar wall, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome;\u00a0photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"the-elect-those-going-to-heaven\">The elect (those going to heaven)<\/h3>\r\nOn the lower left of the composition (Christ\u2019s right), the dead emerge from their graves, shedding their burial shrouds. Some rise up effortlessly, drawn by an invisible force, while others are assisted by herculean angels, one of whom lifts a pair of souls that cling to a strand of rosary beads. This detail reaffirms a doctrine contested by the Protestants: that prayer and good works, and not just faith and divine grace, play a role in determining one\u2019s fate in the afterlife. Directly below, a risen body is caught in violent tug of war, pulled on one end by two angels and on the other by a horned demon who has escaped through a crevice in the central mound. This breach in the earth provides a glimpse of the fires of hell.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1388\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Demons.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Demons.jpg\" alt=\"Demons drag the damned to hell, while angels beat down those who struggle to escape their fate (detail), Michelangelo, Last Judgment.\" width=\"1388\" height=\"824\" \/><\/a> Demons drag the damned to hell, while angels beat down those who struggle to escape their fate (detail), Michelangelo, Last Judgment, Sistine Chapel, altar wall, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"the-damned-those-going-to-hell\">The damned (those going to hell)<\/h3>\r\nOn the right of the composition (Christ\u2019s left), demons drag the damned to hell, while angels beat down those who struggle to escape their fate (image above). One soul is both pummeled by an angel and dragged by a demon, head first; a money bag and two keys dangles from his chest. His is the sin of avarice. Another soul\u2014exemplifying the sin of pride\u2014dares to fight back, arrogantly contesting divine judgment, while a third (at the far right) is pulled by his scrotum (his sin was lust). These sins were specifically singled out in sermons delivered to the papal court.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1726\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Charon.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Charon.jpg\" alt=\"Charon drives the damned onto hell\u2019s shores and in the lower right corner stands the ass-eared Minos (detail), Michelangelo, Last Judgment.\" width=\"1726\" height=\"928\" \/><\/a> Charon drives the damned onto hell\u2019s shores and in the lower right corner stands the ass-eared Minos (detail), Michelangelo, <em>Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel, altar wall, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn the lower right corner, Charon\u2014the ferryman from Greek mythology who transports souls to the underworld\u2014swings his oar as he drives the damned onto hell\u2019s shores (image above). In the lower right corner stands another mythological character, the ass-eared Minos, his own carnal sinfulness indicated by the snake that bites his genitals. He stands at the very edge of hell, judging the new-comers to determine their eternal punishment.\r\n<h3 id=\"in-the-company-of-christ\">In the company of Christ<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/TwoGuys-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/TwoGuys-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Side by side detail images of a fresco depicting muscular, bearded men engaged in animated discussion, with one holding a book and scrolls. The artwork features detailed human anatomy, earthy tones, and dynamic poses.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"2183\" \/><\/a> Left: St. John the Baptist; right: St. Peter (detail), Michelangelo, Last Judgment, altar wall, Sistine Chapel, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Michelangelo_-_Cristo_Juiz.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Tetraktys<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWhile such details were meant to provoke terror in the viewer, Michelangelo\u2019s painting is primarily about the triumph of Christ. The realm of heaven dominates. The elect encircle Christ; they loom large in the foreground and extend far into the depth of the painting, dissolving the boundary of the picture plane. Some hold the instruments of their martyrdom: Andrew the X-shaped cross, Lawrence the gridiron, St. Sebastian a bundle of arrows, to name only a few.\r\n\r\nEspecially prominent are St. John Baptist and St. Peter who flank Christ to the left and right and share his massive proportions (above). John, the last prophet, is identifiable by the camel pelt that covers his groin and dangles behind his legs; and, Peter, the first pope, is identified by the keys he returns to Christ. His role as the keeper of the keys to the kingdom of heaven has ended. This gesture was a vivid reminder to the pope that his reign as Christ\u2019s vicar was temporary\u2014in the end, he too will to answer to Christ.\r\n\r\nIn the lunettes (semi-circular spaces) at the top right and left, angels display the instruments of Christ\u2019s\u00a0Passion, thus connecting this triumphal moment to Christ\u2019s sacrificial death. This portion of the wall projects one foot forward, making it visible to the priest at the altar below as he commemorates Christ\u2019s sacrifice in the liturgy of the Eucharist.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1521\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Lunette.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Lunette.jpg\" alt=\"Lunette with angels carrying the instruments of the Passion of Christ, (detail), Michelangelo, Last Judgment\" width=\"1521\" height=\"1091\" \/><\/a> Lunette with angels carrying the instruments of the Passion of Christ, (detail), Michelangelo, <em>Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"critical-response-masterpiece-or-scandal\">Critical response: masterpiece or scandal?<\/h3>\r\nShortly after its unveiling in 1541, the Roman agent of Cardinal Gonzaga of Mantua reported: \u201cThe work is of such beauty that your excellency can imagine that there is no lack of those who condemn it. . . . [T]o my mind it is a work unlike any other to be seen anywhere.\u201d Many praised the work as a masterpiece. They saw Michelangelo\u2019s distinct figural style, with its complex poses, extreme foreshortening, and powerful (some might say excessive) musculature, as worthy of both the subject matter and the location. The sheer physicality of these muscular nudes affirmed the Catholic doctrine of bodily resurrection (that on the day of judgment, the dead would rise in their bodies, not as incorporeal souls).\r\n\r\nOthers were scandalized\u2014above all by the nudity\u2014despite its theological accuracy, for the resurrected would enter heaven not clothed but nude, as created by God. Critics also objected to the contorted poses (some resulting in the indecorous presentation of buttocks), the breaks with pictorial tradition (the beardless Christ, the wingless angels), and the appearance of mythology (the figures of Charon and Minos) in a scene portraying sacred history. Critics saw these embellishments as distractions from the fresco\u2019s spiritual message. They accused Michelangelo of caring more about showing off his creative abilities than portraying sacred truth with clarity and decorum. Religious art was the \u201cbook of the illiterate\u201d and as such should be easy to understand.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Apollo-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Apollo-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Side by side comparison of freestanding nude male Greek sculpture with his left arm raised next to detail of Christ from Last Judgment with his right arm raised comparing the body compositions. \" width=\"2560\" height=\"1965\" \/><\/a> Left: <em>Apollo Belvedere<\/em> (Roman copy of a Greek(?) original), original late 4th century B.C.E. marble, 2.3 m high (Vatican Museums, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jdNJrH\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>); right: Christ (detail), Michelangelo,\u00a0<em>Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Michelangelo_-_Cristo_Juiz.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Tetraktys<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nMichelangelo\u2019s\u00a0<em>Last Judgment<\/em>, however, was not painted for an unlearned, lay audience. To the contrary, it was designed for a very specific, elite and erudite audience. This audience would understand and appreciate his figural style and iconographic innovations. They would recognize, for example, that his inclusion of Charon and Minos was inspired by Dante\u2019s\u00a0<em>Inferno<\/em>, a text Michelangelo greatly admired. They would see in the youthful face of Christ his reference to the\u00a0<em>Apollo Belvedere<\/em>, an ancient Greek Hellenistic sculpture in the papal collection lauded for its ideal beauty. Thus, Michelangelo glosses the identity of Christ as the \u201cSun of Righteousness\u201d (Malachi 4:2).\r\n<h3 id=\"a-self-portrait\">A self-portrait<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"539\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/SaintBartholomew.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/SaintBartholomew.jpg\" alt=\"A fresco painting depicting a muscular, bearded man seated on a cloud, holding a skin or pelt and a knife, with two other figures partially visible behind him. The artwork features detailed anatomy, muted earth tones, and a dramatic use of light and shadow to emphasize the figures' forms and expressions.\" width=\"539\" height=\"1131\" \/><\/a> St. Bartholomew (detail), Michelangelo, <em>Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nEven more poignant is Michelangelo\u2019s insertion of himself into the fresco. His is the face on the flayed skin held by St. Bartholomew, an empty shell that hangs precariously between heaven and hell. To his learned audience, the flayed skin would bring to mind not only the circumstances of the saint\u2019s martyrdom but also the flaying of Marsyas by Apollo. In his foolish arrogance, Marsyas challenged Apollo to a musical contest, believing his skill could surpass that of the god of music himself. His punishment for such hubris was to be flayed alive. That Michelangelo should identify with Marsyas is not surprising. His contemporaries had dubbed him the \u201cdivine\u201d Michelangelo for his ability to rival God himself in giving form to the ideal body. Often he lamented his youthful pride, which had led him to focus on the beauty of art rather than the salvation of his soul. So, here, in a work done in his mid sixties, he acknowledges his sin and expresses his hope that Christ, unlike Apollo, will have mercy upon him and welcome him into the company of the elect.\r\n<h3 id=\"an-epic-painting\">An epic painting<\/h3>\r\nLike Dante in his great epic poem,\u00a0<em>The Divine Comedy<\/em>, Michelangelo sought to create an epic painting, worthy of the grandeur of the moment. He used metaphor and allusion to ornament his subject. His educated audience would delight in his visual and literary references.\r\n\r\nOriginally intended for a restricted audience, reproductive engravings of the fresco quickly spread it far and wide, placing it at the center of lively debates on the merits and abuses of religious art. While some hailed it as the pinnacle of artistic accomplishment, others deemed it the epitome of all that could go wrong with religious art and called for its destruction. In the end, a compromise was reached. Shortly after the artist\u2019s death in 1564, Daniele Da Volterra was hired to cover bare buttocks and groins with bits of drapery and repaint Saint Catherine of Alexandria, originally portrayed unclothed, and St. Blaise, who hovered menacingly over her with his steel combs.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"720\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Saints.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Saints.jpg\" alt=\"A painting depicting muscular male figures engaged in various activities, set against a cloudy sky background. Key elements include a man in green holding a curved wooden object, another with a rake-like tool, and a central figure with long hair and a muscular build.\" width=\"720\" height=\"687\" \/><\/a> Clockwise: Saint Blaise, Saint Catherine and Saint Sebastian (detail), Michelangelo, <em>Last Judgment,<\/em> Sistine Chapel, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn contrast to its limited audience in the sixteenth century, now the\u00a0<em>Last Judgment<\/em>\u00a0is see by thousands of tourists daily. However, during papal conclaves it becomes once again a powerful reminder to the College of Cardinals of their place in the story of salvation,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.msnbc.com\/jansing-co\/inside-the-conclave-how-the-cardinals-choose-msna19714\">as they gather to elect Christ\u2019s earthly vicar (the next Pope)<\/a>\u2014the person who will be responsible for shepherding the faithful into the community of the elect.\r\n<h2 id=\"caravaggio-calling-of-saint-matthew\">Caravaggio,\u00a0<em>Calling of Saint Matthew<\/em><\/h2>\r\nA key figure in Counter-Reformation religious art, Caravaggio\u2019s focus on realism and use of tenebrism engaged viewers in profound moments of faith.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=-yxSjUvh0g8\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nCaravaggio\u2019s <em>Calling of Saint Matthew<\/em> exemplifies the 17<sup>th<\/sup> century Baroque style with its dramatic presentation of Biblical subject matter. Unlike Renaissance paintings where Christ is often placed in the center of the <strong>composition<\/strong> at the <strong>vanishing point<\/strong> of <strong>linear perspective<\/strong>, Caravaggio used an <strong>asymmetrical composition.<\/strong> Christ is placed on the far right of the painting almost completely shrouded in darkness. The viewer follows the <strong>diagonal line<\/strong> of <strong>light<\/strong> streaming above Christ\u2019s head toward Matthew. In a typical Renaissance painting, a natural <strong>light<\/strong> source is logically perceivable: a window, the sun, a candle, etc. Here, however, <strong>light<\/strong> does not relate to a natural source. The window above Christ\u2019s extended arm does not illuminate the scene. Rather, the light comes from an unseen, ambiguous source. To further enhance the theatricality of the scene, Caravaggio employed an extreme form of <strong>chiaroscuro<\/strong> modeling: <strong>tenebroso<\/strong>. With dark <strong>shadows<\/strong> and bright <strong>highlights<\/strong>, the tenebroso lighting magnifies the drama of Matthew\u2019s spiritual awakening. In a Renaissance painting, Christ is often the brightest figure in scene; however, here Christ seems to emerge from the shadows bringing <strong>light<\/strong> with him to illuminate the earthly sinner, Matthew. In terms of <strong>pictorial space<\/strong>, Caravaggio used tenebroso and <strong>overlapping<\/strong> of <strong>forms<\/strong> to suggest three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional canvas. He also condensed the picture plane by bringing the figures forward in <strong>pictorial space<\/strong> and into conversation with us, the viewer.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"caravaggio-and-caravaggisti-in-17th-century-europe\">Caravaggio and Caravaggisti in 17th-century Europe<\/h2>\r\n<h3 id=\"one-of-the-most-widely-imitated-artists\">One of the most widely imitated artists<\/h3>\r\nMichelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio was famously sensitive when it came to matters of artistic originality: he threatened both the painter\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/reni-aurora\/\">Guido Reni<\/a>\u00a0and artist and biographer Giovanni Baglione for copying his style. Despite his best efforts to protect his singular style, however, Caravaggio became one of the most widely imitated artists in the history of Western art.\r\n\r\nAfter his untimely death in 1610, many Italian and non-Italian artists alike came to be considered his \u201cfollowers,\u201d even though they had never met the artist or worked alongside him. Unlike the typical Renaissance master-follower relationship, these artists could claim no direct descent from the studio of Caravaggio (since he did not have one), and in some cases, they had not even seen his paintings first-hand. Some artists imitated Caravaggio for only a brief phase of their careers \u2013 Baglione, Carlo Saraceni, and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/guercino-st-luke-displaying-a-painting-of-the-virgin\/\">Guercino<\/a>, for example\u2014while others remained committed to Caravaggio\u2019s stylistic model for the duration of their lives.\r\n\r\nNevertheless, these painters, often labeled Caravaggisti, emulated aspects of Caravaggio\u2019s style, technique, and choice of subjects and were responsible for the dissemination of Caravaggism across the European continent.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/DP-12413-001-scaled.jpeg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/DP-12413-001-scaled-1.jpeg\" alt=\"Caravaggio, The Denial of Saint Peter, painting depicting three figures in close proximity, with one wearing a helmet and armor, suggesting a historical or biblical scene. The composition uses strong contrasts of light and shadow to highlight the figures' expressions and gestures, emphasizing tension or confrontation.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1904\" \/><\/a> Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi), <em>The Denial of Saint Peter,<\/em> 1610, oil on canvas, 94 x 125.4 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/437986\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Metropolitan Museum of Art<\/a>, New York, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"a-distinctive-style\">A distinctive style<\/h3>\r\nThese followers, whether Italian, Spanish, French, or Netherlandish, were especially attracted to Caravaggio\u2019s tenebrism\u2014the use of dark shadows to obscure parts of the composition. Caravaggio\u2019s employment of tenebrism and chiaroscuro, the strong contrast of light and dark, lends his paintings a dramatic effect that has been likened to a spotlit stage.\r\n\r\nBy combining this theatrical dynamism with careful observation of life, Caravaggio achieved a gritty naturalism in both genre and religious scenes. His subdued palette, half-length figures, and magnification of the picture-plane to create intimate, relatable compositions contributed to Caravaggio\u2019s widespread appeal during the first three decades of the 17th century in Europe.\r\n\r\nThe unusual darkness and life-like realism of Caravaggio\u2019s paintings accounted in part for his popularity. On the other hand, the types of subject matter and revision of traditional iconographies popularized by Caravaggio had a significant impact on the development of international Caravaggism.\r\n<h3 id=\"new-themes-rogues-and-revelers\">New themes: Rogues and revelers<\/h3>\r\nDuring his early years in Rome, Caravaggio worked as an assistant in the illustrious workshop of the Cavaliere d\u2019Arpino, but he also completed some of his best-known easel paintings (independent, portable canvases) and sold them on the open market. These paintings included depictions of themes that were uncommon in Roman art at the time and became ubiquitous with the help of the Caravaggisti.\r\n\r\nThese followers were particularly interested in Caravaggio\u2019s renderings of the seedy underbelly of Roman street-life in the form of\u00a0<em>The Cardsharps<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0<em>The Fortune Teller<\/em>, two of Caravaggio\u2019s most copied paintings, or in the artist\u2019s depiction of music-making as in the\u00a0<em>Musicians<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0<em>The Lute Player<\/em>. Italian artists like Bartolomeo Manfredi and Antiveduto Grammatica, French painters such as Valentin de Boulogne, Georges de La Tour, Nicolas R\u00e9gnier, and Simon Vouet, and Dutchmen Hendrick Ter Brugghen and Gerrit van Honthorst all replicated these subjects or similar themes in obvious admiration of Caravaggio\u2019s original paintings.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/Fortuneteller-scaled.jpeg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Fortuneteller-scaled-1.jpeg\" alt=\"Georges de La Tour, The Fortune Teller Baroque-style painting depicting five individuals dressed in elaborate 17th-century attire, engaged in a social interaction. Rich colors and detailed fabrics highlight cultural diversity and status, with notable elements including a red sash, patterned shawl, and distinctive headwear.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"2108\" \/><\/a> Georges de La Tour, <em>The Fortune Teller<\/em>, probably 1630s, oil on canvas, 101.9 x 123.5 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/436838\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Metropolitan Museum of Art<\/a>, New York, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2017\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/download.jpeg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/download.jpeg\" alt=\"Caravaggio, The Cardsharps painting depicting three individuals in Renaissance attire engaged in a card game. The scene features rich colors with detailed costumes, including feathers in hats and striped sleeves, highlighting a moment of social interaction and strategy.\" width=\"2017\" height=\"1444\" \/><\/a> Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi), <em>The Cardsharps<\/em>, c. 1595, oil on canvas, 94.2 x 130.9 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/kimbellart.org\/collection\/ap-198706\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Kimbell Art Museum<\/a>, Texas, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Caravaggio_-_The_Cardsharps_(1596-97)_Kimbell_Art_Museum.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThese followers were undoubtedly struck by Caravaggio\u2019s ability to enliven such subjects with a dignity not necessarily befitting the lowly actions depicted. In\u00a0<em>The Cardsharps<\/em>, for instance, a fresh-faced boy is tricked by two professional cheats. The viewer is privy to the deception\u2014the figure at the far right of the composition exposes the stolen cards behind his back\u2014and we are brought close to the ruse and the precariously balanced backgammon board, teetering on the edge of an ornate, brocade-covered table. In versions of the theme by Boulogne, Manfredi, or Nicholas Tournier, earthy scenes of revelry might replace cardplaying.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1799\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/pl1_372768_fnt_tr_t04v.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/pl1_372768_fnt_tr_t04v.jpg\" alt=\"Pietro Paolini, Allegory of the Five Senses painting depicting a group of people gathered around a table, with one person playing a guitar and another drinking from a vessel. The composition uses strong chiaroscuro contrasts, highlighting figures' faces and hands while much of the background remains in shadow, emphasizing a lively, intimate scene.\" width=\"1799\" height=\"1271\" \/><\/a> Pietro Paolini, <em>Allegory of the Five Senses<\/em>, c. 1630, oil on canvas, 125.1 x 173 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/art.thewalters.org\/detail\/15244\/allegory-of-the-five-senses\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Walters Art Museum<\/a>, Baltimore, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pietro_Paolini_-_Allegory_of_the_Five_Senses_-_Walters_372768.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThese sometimes-elaborate compositions do not seek to reproduce the quiet intimacy of Caravaggio\u2019s paintings, but they succeed in transposing the artist\u2019s tenebristic backgrounds and embolden the disenfranchised populations they depict. In Pietro Paolini\u2019s rendering of drinkers and revelers in his\u00a0<em>Allegory of the Senses<\/em>, he superimposes the dark, somber tonality of Caravaggio\u2019s later religious paintings on the themes Caravaggio painted in his youth. The combination is striking: the levity of gambling or musical merriment is sobered by the reddish ground and stronger chiaroscuro common in the second half of Caravaggio\u2019s career, when he had long since left such subjects behind.\r\n<h3 id=\"selective-adoptions\">Selective adoptions<\/h3>\r\nSince followers of Caravaggio had no formal indoctrination by the master himself (unlike painters in the school of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/annibale-carracci-christ-appearing-to-saint-peter-on-the-appian-way\/\">Carracci<\/a>, for instance), they were free to take from Caravaggio whatever aspects of the painter\u2019s style and method they were most interested in. Painters like Cecco del Caravaggio, Orazio Gentileschi and his daughter,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gentileschi-judith-slaying-holofernes\/\">Artemisia Gentileschi<\/a>, or Grammatica, who knew Caravaggio personally, did have the benefit of direct contact with the source of their inspiration, but their work retains a character all its own.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1470\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/Saint-Francis-supported-by-an-Angel.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Saint-Francis-supported-by-an-Angel.jpg\" alt=\"Orazio Gentileschi, Saint Francis in Ecstasy painting depicting a robed figure seated with a large angelic figure standing behind, wings spread wide. The painting features muted earth tones with detailed textures on clothing and feathers.\" width=\"1470\" height=\"1882\" \/><\/a> Orazio Gentileschi, <em>Saint Francis in Ecstasy<\/em>, c. 1607 and 1612\u201313, oil on canvas, 126 x 98 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.museodelprado.es\/en\/the-collection\/art-work\/saint-francis-supported-by-an-angel\/691d8204-2581-4d40-8a08-4464f15fa03b\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Museo del Prado<\/a>, Madrid, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Orazio_Gentileschi_-_St_Francis_Supported_by_an_Angel_-_WGA8583.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Gentileschi\u2014both father and daughter\u2014produced more lyrical paintings than did Caravaggio. Incorporating the cold blues, yellows, and violets that were notably absent from Caravaggio\u2019s palette, their paintings, particularly those of Orazio, often reflected local influences. Nevertheless\u2014and crucial to the discussion of Caravaggism in Europe\u2014their work reveals an absorption not only of Caravaggio\u2019s tenebrism, but of his approach to religious\u00a0iconography.\r\n\r\nIn his depictions of\u00a0<em>St. Francis in Ecstasy<\/em>, Orazio favors the intimate saint-angel relationship first struck by Caravaggio in his Hartford\u00a0<em>St. Francis<\/em>. In her gory\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gentileschi-judith-slaying-holofernes\/\"><em>Judith Beheading Holofernes<\/em><\/a>, Artemisia Gentileschi further highlights the violent struggle of decapitation emphasized in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/2560px-Judith_Beheading_Holofernes_-_Caravaggio.jpeg\">Caravaggio\u2019s painting of 1599<\/a>. In both cases, the mixed horror and conviction apparent in Judith\u2019s face humanize her violent yet selfless act, all while blood drips mercilessly into the viewer\u2019s space.\r\n<h3 id=\"a-new-kind-of-religious-imagery\">A new kind of religious imagery<\/h3>\r\nOther Caravaggisti were also influenced by Caravaggio\u2019s humanizing depictions of devotional subjects. In their representations of the<em>\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/Der_ungla%CC%88ubige_Thomas_-_Michelangelo_Merisi_named_Caravaggio.jpeg\">Doubting Thomas<\/a><\/em>, for instance, Ter Brugghen, Honthorst, and Mattias Stomer reproduced the extraordinary half-length figures in semi-circular groupings and visceral depiction of Thomas\u2019s finger in Christ\u2019s side from Caravaggio\u2019s c. 1602 painting for Benedetto Giustiniani. In fact, these Northern artists were likely responsible for the sudden surge in popularity of\u00a0<em>Doubting Thomas<\/em>\u00a0imagery in the Netherlandish city of Utrecht during the first half of the 17th century.\r\n\r\nSimilarly, Jusepe de Ribera is credited with the spread of the Caravaggesque style to Spain, where it in turn may have influenced the work of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/velazquez-the-waterseller-of-seville\/\">Diego Vel\u00e1zquez<\/a>.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/jusepe-de-ribera-the-martyrdom-of-saint-philip\/\">Ribera\u2019s paintings<\/a>\u00a0of half-length saints, such as the\u00a0<em>St. Jerome<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0<em>Sts. Peter and Paul<\/em>, and large-scale devotional paintings such as the\u00a0<em>Lamentation over the Dead Christ<\/em>\u00a0reflect his years spent in Rome and Naples, where the art of Caravaggio fostered Ribera\u2019s tenebrism and intimate portrayal of hallowed religious subjects.\r\n\r\nIn 1612, two years after Caravaggio\u2019s death, a young Ribera asked his Roman landlord for permission to cut a hole in his roof. Allowing natural light to illuminate models in Ribera\u2019s studio, this makeshift skylight stands as unusual evidence of the lengths Caravaggisti might go to achieve the first-hand observation, dramatic lighting, and incisive realism that characterized this new approach to art.\r\n\r\nThis content was first developed for Oxford Art Online and appears courtesy of Oxford University Press.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1432\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/pl1_37278_fnt_tr_t03v.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/pl1_37278_fnt_tr_t03v.jpg\" alt=\"Jusepe de Ribera, St Paul the Hermit painting depicting an emaciated, shirtless man with hands clasped in prayer, illuminated by a beam of light from the upper right. The dark background contrasts with the man's pale skin, and a skull rests on a table beside him.\" width=\"1432\" height=\"1800\" \/><\/a> Jusepe de Ribera, <em>St. Paul the Hermit<\/em>, c. 1638, oil on canvas,132.7 x 106.7 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/art.thewalters.org\/detail\/37037\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Walters Art Museum<\/a>, Baltimore, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Jusepe_de_Ribera_-_Saint_Paul_the_Hermit_-_Walters_37278.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"artemisia-gentileschi-judith-slaying-holofernes\">Artemisia Gentileschi,\u00a0<em>Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em><\/h2>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=BHFuLS9NW6s\r\n\r\n\u201cLord God, to whom all strength belongs, prosper what my hands are now to do for the greater glory of Jerusalem; for now is the time to recover your heritage and to further my plans to crush the enemies arrayed against us.\u201d Judith\u2019s prayer before beheading Holofernes (Judith 13:4-5)\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2133\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Zucker-image-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Zucker-image-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Artemisia Gentileschi's Judith Slaying Holofernes shows Judith and her maidservant in the middle of decapitating Holofernes. The painting has deep rich colors and a strong contrast of light and shadow. \" width=\"2133\" height=\"2560\" \/><\/a> Artemisia Gentileschi, <em>Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em>, 1620\u201321, oil on canvas, 162.5 x 199 cm (Uffizi Gallery, Florence; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nBdeU7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"the-story-of-judith\">The story of Judith<\/h3>\r\nRivulets of blood run down the white sheets, as Judith, a pious young widow from the Jewish city of Bethulia, beheads Holofernes, general of the Assyrian army that had besieged her city. Moved by the plight of her people and filled with trust in God, Judith took matters into her own hands. She coiffed her hair, donned her finest garments and entered the enemy camp under the pretense of bringing Holofernes\u00a0information that would ensure his victory. Struck by her beauty, he\u00a0invited her to dine, planning later to seduce her. As the biblical text recounts, \u201cHolofernes was so enchanted with her that he drank far more wine than he had drunk on any other day in his life\u201d (Judith 12:20).\u00a0Judith saw her opportunity; with a prayer on her lips and a sword in her hand, she saved her people from destruction.\r\n\r\nThe story of Judith and Holofernes is recounted in the Book of Judith, a 2nd century text deemed apocryphal by the Jewish and Protestant traditions, but included in Catholic editions of the Bible. Like the story of David and Goliath, it was a popular subject of art in the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/primer-italian-renaissance-art\/\">Renaissance<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-baroque-art\/\">Baroque<\/a>\u00a0periods.\r\n<h3 id=\"artemisia-and-caravaggio\">Artemisia and Caravaggio<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Judith-Holofernes-comp-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Judith-Holofernes-comp-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Side by side comparison of two paintings each showing two women decapitating the head of a large man. \" width=\"2560\" height=\"1000\" \/><\/a> Left: Caravaggio, <em>Judith Beheading Holofernes<\/em>, 1598\u201399, oil on canvas, 145 x 195 cm (Palazzo Barberini, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Judith_Beheading_Holofernes_-_Caravaggio.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Architas<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>); right: Judith, Abra, and Holofernes (detail), Artemisia Gentileschi,\u00a0<em>Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em>, 1620\u201321, oil on canvas, 162.5 x 199 cm (Uffizi Gallery, Florence; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nBdeU7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThis particular painting, executed by Artemisia Gentileschi in Florence and now in the Uffizi, is one of the bloodiest and most vivid depictions of the scene, surpassing the version by\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/caravaggio-and-caravaggisti-in-17th-century-europe\/\">Caravaggio<\/a>, arch-realist of Baroque Rome, in its immediacy and shocking realism. Artemisia was certainly familiar with Caravaggio\u2019s painting of the subject; her father Orazio, who was responsible for her artistic training, was Caravaggio\u2019s friend and artistic follower. Caravaggio\u2019s painting inspired, and perhaps even challenged, the young Artemisia.\r\n\r\nA comparison between the two reveals not only her debt to the older artist, but also a series of pointed modifications that heighten the intensity of the physical struggle, the quantity of blood spilled, and the physical and psychological strength of Judith and her maidservant, Abra. In Artemisia\u2019s painting, the bloody sheets are in the immediate foreground, close to the viewer\u2019s space. Holofernes\u2019s muscular body projects dynamically into the depicted space as bold areas of light and dark draw attention to his powerful limbs.\r\n\r\nAnd, most importantly, whereas Caravaggio pairs his delicate Judith with a haggard attendant who merely looks on, her eyes wide with disbelief, Artemisia depicts two strong, young women working in unison, their sleeves rolled up, their gazes focused, their grips firm. Caravaggio\u2019s Judith gracefully recoils from her gruesome task; Artemisia\u2019s Judith does not flinch. Instead, she braces herself on the bed, as she presses Holofernes\u2019s head down with one hand and pulls a large sword through his neck with the other. The creases at her wrists clearly show the physical strength required. Holofernes struggles in vain, the thrust of his arms countered by the more forceful movement of Abra, Judith\u2019s accomplice in this grisly act.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2450\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Gentileschi-comp.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Gentileschi-comp.jpg\" alt=\"Side by side comparison of two paintings each showing two women decapitating the head of a large man. \" width=\"2450\" height=\"1500\" \/><\/a> Left: Artemisia Gentileschi, <em>Judith Beheading Holofernes<\/em>, 1611\u201312, oil on canvas, 159 x 126 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/artsandculture.google.com\/asset\/judith-and-holofernes-artemisia-gentileschi\/EAHU7mkaSlAX2A?hl=en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte<\/a>, Naples, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Artemisia_Gentileschi_-_Judith_Beheading_Holofernes_-_WGA8563.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>); right: Artemisia Gentileschi,\u00a0<em>Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em>, 1620\u201321, oil on canvas, 162.5 x 199 cm (Uffizi Gallery, Florence; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nBdeU7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"a-composition-perfected\">A\u00a0composition perfected<\/h3>\r\nThe Uffizi\u00a0<em>Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em>\u00a0is Artemisia\u2019s second telling of this narrative. The first, executed in Rome and now in the Capodimonte Museum in Naples, introduced the dynamic composition centered on the thrust and counter thrust of extended limbs. Artemisia refined the composition in the second (Uffizi) version. Small but significant adjustments reveal her growth in technical skill, her awareness of the local Florentine taste for sumptuous fabrics, and her thoughtful consideration of the expressive potential of each detail. Awkward passages of anatomy and proportion (such as Holofernes\u2019 head) have been corrected, the colors and textures of the fabrics are now richer (notice the red velvet draped over Holofernes and the golden damask of Artemisia\u2019s Judith\u2019s dress), and Judith\u2019s hair is more elaborately curled, in keeping with the biblical text\u2019s emphasis on her self-adornment.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"867\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Detail-1.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Detail-1.jpg\" alt=\"Detail image of painting showing a head being removed from a body with the figure's eyes wide open in fear and blood spurting from the neck. \" width=\"867\" height=\"1012\" \/><\/a> Beheading (detail), Artemisia Gentileschi, <em>Judith Slaying Holofernes,<\/em> 1620\u201321, oil on canvas, 162.5 x 199 cm (Uffizi Gallery, Florence; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nBdeU7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nMost striking, however, is the portrayal of the blood. The Capodimonte version omits the blood that violently spurts from the neck of Holofernes. Like Caravaggio\u2019s, the Uffizi painting places particular emphasis on this detail, and does so with even greater realism.\r\n\r\nFramed by Judith\u2019s arms, jets of blood now arc and descend in droplets that bespeckle her arms and dress. The pattern described by the spurting blood suggests Artemisia may have been familiar with her friend\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/galileo-galilei\/\">Galileo Galilei<\/a>\u2019s research on parabolic trajectories. Artemisia also modified the sword in the Uffizi version. The sword, here longer and held more vertically, prominently marks the painting\u2019s central axis which extends from Abra\u2019s arm to the blood that runs down the edge of the bed. This powerful visual axis reinforces the strength of the women and the violence of the deed. It is no accident that Judith\u2019s sword-clenching fist is at the very center of the composition; imbued with divine strength, this widow\u2019s hand is now the hand of God protecting the Israelites from their enemies.\r\n<h3 id=\"judithartemisias-alter-ego\">Judith\u2014Artemisia\u2019s alter ego?<\/h3>\r\nArtemisia\u2019s unique portrayal of Judith and Abra has prompted scholars to argue that Artemisia identified with the protagonist of the story in a way her male counterparts did not. This association stems not only from their shared gender, but also from Artemisia\u2019s own traumatic experience. Artemisia was raped at the age of 17 by the artist Agostino Tassi, a close friend of her father. When Tassi failed to marry her, as the social dictates of the time demanded, her father sought recourse in court.\u00a0During the trial, Artemisia describes her struggle against Tassi and her attempt to attack him with a knife. She also recalls the sense of betrayal she felt\u00a0when she realized\u00a0her female chaperone\u00a0had colluded with Tassi and arranged to leave the two alone.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"881\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Detail-2.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Detail-2.jpg\" alt=\"Close-up photograph of a painted arm wearing an ornate gold bracelet with three blue oval gemstones set in intricate gold frames.\" width=\"881\" height=\"899\" \/><\/a> Bracelet (detail), Artemisia Gentileschi, <em>Judith Slaying Holofernes,<\/em> 1620\u201321, oil on canvas, 162.5 x 199 cm (Uffizi Gallery, Florence; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nBaHBv\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe first version of\u00a0<em>Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em>\u00a0dates to this difficult period in the artist\u2019s life.\u00a0Especially significant is Artemisia\u2019s portrayal of Abra as youthful, strong and fully engaged in the assisting Judith, in striking contrast to the chaperone who purposefully abandoned Artemisia in her hour of need. In the Uffizi painting Artemisia adds a small detail that supports her identification with Judith. \u00a0One of the cameos on Judith\u2019s bracelet appears to depict Artemis, the ancient goddess of both chastity and the hunt.\r\n<h3 id=\"juditha-symbol-of-the-church-militant\">Judith\u2014a symbol of the church militant<\/h3>\r\nWhile the story of Judith may have held personal significance for Artemisia,\u00a0it is important to note its broader cultural valence. The story of Judith was especially popular in the Baroque period, not only in the visual arts but also in literature, theater, and music. An example of the victory of virtue over vice, of God\u2019s protection of his chosen people from their enemies, Judith was also seen as an Old Testament\u00a0antetype\u00a0of the Virgin Mary and, by extension, as a symbol of the Church. This association partly explains the increase in portrayals of Judith in late 16th through the 17th centuries, when the Catholic Church was engaged in conflicts with both the Protestants and the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-rise-of-the-ottoman-empire\/\">Ottoman Turks<\/a>, whose\u00a0eastern\u00a0origins facilitated their identification with Holofernes. Artemisia and her contemporaries capitalized on this popularity, frequently portraying not only the moment of the beheading itself, but also\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artemisia-gentileschi-judith-and-her-maidservant-with-the-head-of-holofernes\/\">the moment right after it<\/a>, when Judith and her maidservant escape from the enemy camp. The dramatic potential of the story made it as ideal subject for the powerful theatricality of Baroque art.\r\n<h3 id=\"banished\">Banished<\/h3>\r\nThe Uffizi\u00a0<em>Judith<\/em>\u00a0was likely either commissioned by or gifted to the Medici, Florence\u2019s ruling family, the same family that commissioned Donatello\u2019s famous bronze sculpture of\u00a0<em>Judith and Holofernes<\/em>\u00a0in the late 15th century.\r\n\r\nArtemisia Gentileschi was clearly proud of the Uffizi\u00a0<em>Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em>, signing it in the lower right corner. In it she demonstrated her mastery of the language of Baroque realism, exploiting its emphasis on proximity to the picture plane, strong\u00a0chiaroscuro, and realistic details to create an especially potent depiction of the story\u2019s dramatic climax.\r\n\r\nThe bold immediacy of this finely-tuned composition succeeded all too well, for in the late 18th century, disgusted by the horror of the scene, the Medici duchess banished this painting\u00a0to a dark corner of the Uffizi, where it remained until the late twentieth century. To this day, it strikes its viewers with both revulsion and awe at the skill of the artist who so convincingly transformed paint into blood.\r\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-4\">Conclusion<\/h2>\r\n17<sup>th<\/sup> century Italian Baroque art was profoundly shaped by the Counter-Reformation and the Catholic Church\u2019s response to the Protestant Reformation. Artists, especially those serving the Church, were required to follow the new art-making rules set forth by the Council of Trent. In Italy and in other Catholic territories, art associated with the church now had to teach, to serve as positive propaganda, and to follow the rules of censorship. The emerging Baroque period introduced a style that was full of drama, theatricality, emotion, movement, and viewer engagement.\r\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-4\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\r\nThe following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Introduction to Baroque Architecture<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Conclusion<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Lauren Kilroy-Ewbank and Dr. Heather Graham, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/mannerism-introduction\/\">Mannerism, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, September 1, 2020.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/el-greco\/\">El Greco<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/el-greco-adoration-of-the-shepherds\/\">El Greco,\u00a0<em>Adoration of the Shepherds<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, November 25, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Esperan\u00e7a Camara, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-baroque-art\/\">Baroque art, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, June 9, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/how-to-recognize-baroque-art\/\">How to recognize Baroque art<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, May 10, 2016.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/francesco-borromini\/\">Francesco Borromini<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/borromini-san-carlo-alle-quattro-fontane\/\">Francesco Borromini, San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, November 18, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/gian-lorenzo-bernini\/\">Gian Lorenzo Bernini<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bernini-st-peters-square-2\/\">Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Saint Peter\u2019s Square<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, November 18, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bernini-baldacchino\/\">Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Baldacchino, Saint Peter\u2019s<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, July 19, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Esperan\u00e7a Camara, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-last-judgment\/\">Michelangelo,\u00a0<em>Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, November 28, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/caravaggio\/\">Caravaggio<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/caravaggio-calling-of-st-matthew\/\">Caravaggio,\u00a0<em>Calling of Saint Matthew<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, November 18, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Oxford University Press and Dr. Erin Benay, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/caravaggio-and-caravaggisti-in-17th-century-europe\/\">Caravaggio and Caravaggisti in 17th-century Europe<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, July 12, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Esperan\u00e7a Camara, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gentileschi-judith-slaying-holofernes\/\">Artemisia Gentileschi,\u00a0<em>Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, July 19, 2015.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-4\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\n<p>In the late 16<sup>th<\/sup> century, Mannerism was a transitional style between the Renaissance and the Baroque. The historical context of the Baroque period, from c. 1600-1700, is anchored by the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation. Both the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic Church\u2019s Counter-Reformation serve as the backdrop for understanding the dramatic style of the Baroque. Across Europe, regional variations of the Baroque style developed, often dependent upon religious affiliation. In Italy, artists like Bernini, Borromini, Caravaggio, and Gentileschi worked for the Catholic Church&#8217;s Counter-Reformation.\u00a0As such, their works were designed to teach the faithful and inspire a deep connection to the faith.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-4\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Parmigianino,\u00a0<em>Madonna of the Long Neck<\/em>, 1530\u201333, oil on panel<\/li>\n<li>El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos),\u00a0<em>Adoration of the Shepherds,<\/em>\u00a0ca. 1612 \u2013 1614, oil on canvas<\/li>\n<li>Gian Lorenzo Bernini,\u00a0<em>David,\u00a0<\/em>1623, marble<\/li>\n<li>Francesco Borromini, <em>San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane<\/em> (\u201cCarlino\u201d), Rome, Italy, 1638-1646.<\/li>\n<li>Gian Lorenzo Bernini, <em>Saint Peter\u2019s Square<\/em> (Piazza San Pietro), Vatican City, Rome, 1656\u201367<\/li>\n<li>Michelangelo Buonarotti,\u00a0<em>Last Judgment,\u00a0<\/em>altar wall of the Sistine Chapel, Vatican City, Rome, Italy, 1534-1541, fresco<\/li>\n<li>Michelangelo Merisi da\u00a0Caravaggio,\u00a0<em>Calling of Saint Matthew<\/em>, c. 1597-1601, oil on canvas<\/li>\n<li>Artemisia Gentileschi,<em>\u00a0Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em>, 1620-21, oil on canvas<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"term-list-4\">Term List<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Mannerism<\/li>\n<li>Figura serpentinata<\/li>\n<li>Baroque<\/li>\n<li>Reformation<\/li>\n<li>Martin Luther<\/li>\n<li>95 Theses<\/li>\n<li>Counter-Reformation<\/li>\n<li>Catholic<\/li>\n<li>Council of Trent<\/li>\n<li>Baldacchino (In St. Peter&#8217;s Basilica)<\/li>\n<li>(new) St. Peter&#8217;s Basilica, Rome<\/li>\n<li>Relic<\/li>\n<li>Piazza<\/li>\n<li>Tenebroso (tenebrism)<\/li>\n<li>Caravaggisti<\/li>\n<li>Momento mori<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"mannerism-an-introduction\">Mannerism, an introduction<\/h2>\n<p>Parasitic. Original. Derogatory. Refined. Hyper-decorative. Courtly. Anti-classical. Classicizing. All of these words (and many more!) have been used to describe mannerist art, which begins in the 16th century. But what\u00a0<em>is\u00a0<\/em>it, and how could it possibly prompt so many contradictory descriptors?<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"what-is-mannerism\">What is mannerism?<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 1778px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/uffizi-parmigianino-madonna-long-neck.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/uffizi-parmigianino-madonna-long-neck.jpg\" alt=\"Parmigianino, Madonna of the Long Neck, 1530\u201333 painting of an elongated Virgin Mary holding an elongated Christ child. On Mary's right is a crowd of people while on Mary's left there is a large pillar and a small-scale man holding a scroll.\" width=\"1778\" height=\"2500\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Parmigianino, <em>Madonna of the Long Neck<\/em>, 1530\u201333, 73 x 60 cm (Uffizi, Florence, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Parmigianino_003b.jpg\">Tetraktys<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Parmigianino\u2019s\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/parmigianino-madonna-of-the-long-neck\/\"><em>Madonna of the Long Neck<\/em><\/a>\u00a0is a famous example of mannerist art. It was painted for the funerary chapel of an Italian noblewoman.\u00a0In the center, the Virgin\u2019s lower body seems to swell, her impossibly long legs swathed in billowing fabric that then clings sensuously to her rapidly tapering torso, revealing her navel and a protruding nipple. Her head, seeming too small for her body, is precariously balanced upon an elongated neck rising from narrow, sloping shoulders.\u00a0Christ\u2019s spindly, bare body stretches across her lap.\u00a0Pressed closely to her right are sensuous yet bizarrely proportioned angels, compressed into the foreground. One angelic figure, showing a long bare leg, holds an elegant antique vase with the tips of his impossibly long fingers. On the right side, a diminutive figure in the lower corner mysteriously holds up a scroll, while the background recedes dramatically into a deep, unfinished space. The architectural space is designed to appear illogical (though it can be reconciled) and the within it figures are mis-proportioned, yet the overall impression is one of elegance and carefully contrived artifice. This effect is enhanced by the use of rich jewel tones and the absence of visible brush marks.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1999px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Raphael_-_Madonna_in_the_Meadow_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Raphael_-_Madonna_in_the_Meadow_-_Google_Art_Project-scaled.jpg\" alt=\"Raphael, Madonna of the Meadow painting depicting a seated woman in a red and blue dress with two young children, one holding a cross-shaped staff. The background features a serene landscape with distant mountains, trees, and a building with domes under a partly cloudy sky.\" width=\"1999\" height=\"2560\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Raphael, <em>Madonna of the Meadow<\/em>, 1505\u201306, oil on panel, 885 x 1130 cm (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Raphael_-_Madonna_in_the_Meadow_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg\">DcoetzeeBot<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Parmigianino takes us to an otherworldly realm in which the laws of proportion, naturalism, and mathematics do not apply. It is a far cry from the rational classicism of earlier works like\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/raphael-introduction\/\">Raphael\u2019s<\/a>\u00a0<em>Madonna of the Meadow\u00a0<\/em>(from\u00a0what is traditionally called the\u00a0\u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/toward-the-high-renaissance-an-introduction\/\">high renaissance<\/a>\u201c). Here, the Virgin and Christ child, accompanied by the infant John the Baptist, are rendered in\u00a0classical\u00a0proportions and occupy an idealized though believable space. The Virgin\u2019s body is demurely clothed and the children\u2019s plump forms suggest playful vitality. Nowhere do we find the sensuous ambiguity or the irrational geometry of Parmigianino\u2019s creation. Something new is happening in the mannerist image.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1394px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/23674859124_07ae0cd82b_o.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/23674859124_07ae0cd82b_o.jpg\" alt=\"Rosso Fiorentino, The Dead Christ with Angels, c. 1524-7, oil on panel painting of a curved deceased Chris with lifeless skin pallor surrounded by figures.\" width=\"1394\" height=\"1800\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Rosso Fiorentino,<em> The Dead Christ with Angels,<\/em> c. 1524\u201327, oil on panel, 133.4 x 104.1 cm (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/C54QNh\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"towards-a-definition-of-mannerism\">Towards a definition of mannerism<\/h3>\n<p>The term \u201cmannerism\u201d is not easily defined. It has been used to designate art that is overtly artificial, often ambiguous, and conspicuously sophisticated. However, these are by no means the only stylistic traits associated with this designation. Mannerist imagery frequently pushes the boundaries of fantasy and imagination with artists looking to art, rather than nature, as a model, as Parmigianino was clearly doing in his painting. Mannerism is therefore a confusing term, subject to radically different interpretations. When the term was first widely used in the 17th\u00a0century, it was intended as a pejorative label. It was used to negatively characterize Italian renaissance art created between 1520 and 1600 that was seen by these later audiences as overly stylized and tasteless, a debased departure from the classicism of Raphael and the high renaissance. With the rise of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/expressionism-intro\/\">expressionism<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/who-created-the-first-abstract-artwork\/\">abstraction<\/a>\u00a0in the 20th century, such negative views of this generation of artists subsided. Today, the English term \u201cmannerism\u201d is used to broadly designate 16th-century art throughout Europe (and even in places like the Americas in the 16th and 17th centuries) that is conspicuously artificial, often emotionally provocative, and designed to impress.<\/p>\n<p>In sixteenth-century Italy, where what we now call mannerism is first evident, the term \u201cmannerism\u201d did not exist. What we do find is \u201c<em>maniera<\/em>,\u201d a term rooted in the word\u00a0<em>mano<\/em>\u00a0(hand). It was used in a straight forward way by contemporaries to simply designate style. The styles that the word\u00a0<em>maniera\u00a0<\/em>was used to describe were as varied as way the word style might be used today. Audrey Hepburn had style. So did\u00a0David Bowie.<\/p>\n<p><em>Maniera<\/em>\u00a0was also used in the 16th century to suggest \u201cstylishness\u201d itself, a self-conscious,\u00a0artificial artistry that at times privileged fantasy over reality. Artists displaying\u00a0<em>maniera<\/em>\u00a0may consciously exploit their technical skill but ideally did so with seeming effortlessness, like we see in Parmigianino\u2019s\u00a0<em>Madonna of the Long Neck<\/em>. Artistic departures from visual reality were intended to demonstrate invention and refinement, learning and grace. One way to understand mannerism, popularized by late 20th-century scholars, is to think of it as the \u201cstylish-style.\u201d<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/berruguete-and-laocoon.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/berruguete-and-laocoon-scaled.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph of two classical sculptures depicting mythological scenes with human figures entwined by serpents. Left sculpture features two figures with one standing and the other crouching, both with painted details, while right sculpture shows a muscular central figure struggling against multiple serpents, carved in white marble.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1541\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Left: Alonso Berruguete, <em>Abraham and Isaac<\/em>, 1526\u20131532, polychromed wood, (89 x 46 x 32 cm) (Museo Nacional de Escultura, Valladolid; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/WqLY9K\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u00a0Iglesia en Valladolid<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>); right: Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons<\/em>, early first century C.E., marble, 7\u201910 1\/2\u2033 high (Vatican Museums; photo:<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/AjTuNU\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">\u00a0Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Rather than seeing such images as breaking with renaissance visual developments, scholars now recognize mannerist imagery as continuing those explorations in new ways. While the artworks might seem to diverge from classical forms, these artists did actually invent new ways of engaging with the ancient past. One of the most influential artworks for mannerist artists\u00a0was the Hellenistic sculpture of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/athanadoros-hagesandros-and-polydoros-of-rhodes-laocoon-and-his-sons\/\">Laoco\u00f6n and his sons<\/a>, whose twisting, contorted bodies appealed to a variety of artists of this time, including the Burgundian artist Juan de Juni (who worked in Spain), Domenicos Theotokopoulos (known as El Greco), Alonso Berruguete, and Francesco Primaticcio. Berruguete frequently adapted aspects of the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n<\/em>\u00a0in his sculpture to heighten the emotional expressiveness of his saintly figures, such as we find in his\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/alonso-berruguete-abraham-and-isaac\/\">Abraham and Isaac<\/a>.<\/em><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"why-mannerism\">Why mannerism?<\/h3>\n<p>Why do these elegant explorations take place after 1520? While there is no easy answer for the style\u2019s emergence at this time, historical and religious developments, the tastes of powerful\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/overview\/courses\/patrons-in-the-renaissance\/\">patrons<\/a>, and the rising social status of the artist may all be key factors. Mannerism first developed in central Italy in the cities of Rome and Florence and it quickly spread. The reasons are many. The early and mid-16th century was a period of enormous social, economic, and political change witnessing the spread of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-protestant-reformation\/\">Protestantism<\/a>\u00a0and the wars of religion that followed. The rise of capitalism and absolutism, colonization and exploitation of new lands and peoples, and new developments in the science of anatomy and optics\u00a0also add to the era\u2019s complexity.\u00a0Some have attributed the new stylistic explorations of the period to a general neurosis resulting from this shifting context. The new contorted and exaggerated forms are deliberately unbalanced like the 16th century itself.<\/p>\n<p>While mannerist qualities are found in secular works, like Bronzino\u2019s\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bronzino-an-allegory-with-venus-and-cupid\/\"><em>Allegory with Venus and Cupid<\/em><\/a>, this otherworldly, fantastical stylishness may have served a particular function for sacred subjects. The distortion, ambiguity, and supernatural beauty of many mannerist works may have heightened their emotional appeal to Christian audiences, inspiring a deeply personal devotional experience appropriate to this era of religious upheaval. On the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-renaissance-in-spain\/\">Iberian Peninsula<\/a>, mannerist artists like Berruguete or the painter Luis de Morales forged an expressive visual language that encouraged profoundly emotional and ecstatic religious devotion.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1200px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/morales-louvre.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/morales-louvre.jpg\" alt=\"Luis de Morales, Piedad, 1565 oil on panel of a deceased Chris bleeding from a chest wound held by the Virgin Mary clad in blue.\" width=\"1200\" height=\"1516\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Luis de Morales, <em>Piedad<\/em>, 1565 oil on panel, 1.25 x .96 m (Louvre, Paris; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre_-_Luis_de_Morales_-_Piet%C3%A0_-_Ensemble.JPG\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">MOSSOT<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Mannerist art has been associated with the tastes of aristocratic patrons, particularly those within court circles where displays of wealth and appreciation for beautiful things helped cultivate an elite persona. The self-conscious artifice and deliberate complexity of these works would have appealed to patrons who were familiar with recent artistic developments and eager to show off their knowledge and good taste. The general rise in the status of the artist\u2014particularly in central Italy where mannerism first developed over the course of the renaissance, may also have contributed to a rising taste in art that reflected an artist\u2019s individual style. Previously, artists were regarded as humble craftsmen, practitioners of the \u201cmechanical arts.\u201d By the 1520s\u2014thanks in part to high renaissance artists like\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/europe-1300-1800\/italy-16th-century\/michelangelo\/\">Michelangelo<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/raphael-introduction\/\">Raphael<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/who-was-albrecht-durer\/\">Albrecht D\u00fcrer<\/a>\u00a0and others\u2014visual artists could claim status as practitioners of a \u201cliberal art,\u201d placing them alongside scholars, poets, and\u00a0other\u00a0humanists. The stylistically specific creations of individual visual artists were increasingly valued as precious records of their individual ingenuity and intellect, it meant something to own a \u201cD\u00fcrer\u201d or a \u201cTitian.\u201d The pronounced stylishness of mannerist imagery unmistakably marked these works as creations of a unique maker.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-first-mannerist-artists\">The first mannerist artists<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 2316px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/sala-dei-giganti.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/sala-dei-giganti.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph of a detailed ceiling and wall fresco depicting numerous human figures among clouds, arranged in a circular, spiral-like composition around a central architectural element. The artwork features vibrant colors, dynamic poses, and a dramatic use of light and shadow, creating a sense of depth and movement in a classical or baroque style.\" width=\"2316\" height=\"1144\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Left: Giulio Romano, Wall and partial ceiling of the <em>Sala dei Giganti<\/em>, 1528\u201330, Palazzo T\u00e8, Mantua (photo: Web Gallery of Art); right: Giulio Romano, Ceiling of the <em>Sala dei Giganti<\/em>, 1528\u201330, Palazzo T\u00e8, Mantua (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ceiling_of_the_Room_of_the_giants_in_Palazzo_Te,_Mantua.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Livioandronico2013<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Mannerist visual strategies have local beginnings (from what we can tell) in Central Italy, although they begin to spread rapidly after their introduction. We find elements of the\u00a0<em>maniera<\/em>\u00a0among Raphael\u2019s followers, such as in the work of Giulio Romano, who, along with Gian Francesco Penni, took over Raphael\u2019s workshop in Rome upon the master\u2019s untimely death. His work at Palazzo T\u00e8 (the pleasure villa of Federico II Gonzaga of Mantua), like the frescoes in the\u00a0<em>Sala dei Giganti\u00a0<\/em>(Hall of the Giants), is a creative interpretation of and playful riff upon the classical tradition, continuing renaissance fascination with the ancient past. Powerful, elongated figures writhe across painted walls and ceiling that are reminiscent of ancient\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/battle-of-the-romans-and-barbarians-ludovisi-battle-sarcophagus\/\">sarcophagi<\/a>. At the Palazzo, Romano even developed architectural spaces that appear to dissolve in place like ancient ruins.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/LastJudgMortel-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/LastJudgMortel-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Michelangelo, Last Judgment, Sistine Chapel, altar wall fresco covering an entire chapel wall depicting numerous human figures in dynamic poses against a blue sky background. The artwork features detailed scenes of judgment and resurrection, with vibrant colors and intricate compositions framed by architectural elements and windows.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1739\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Michelangelo, <em>Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel, altar wall, fresco, 1534-1541 (Vatican City, Rome) (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/smoel\/3721836114\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Ramon Stoppelenburg<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>While Michelangelo\u00a0is typically associated with what is called high renaissance art, he also helped to shape the powerful visual language of what we now call the\u00a0<em>maniera<\/em>. Michelangelo\u2019s\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-last-judgment\/\"><em>Last Judgement<\/em><\/a>, painted upon the altar wall of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-ceiling-of-the-sistine-chapel\/\">Sistine Chapel<\/a>, is a complicated and intentionally terrifying vision of the end of time. With disconcerting jumps in scale, nude figures in contorted poses are spread across a blue sky, their souls and bodies bared before God as they either rise in glory or are crushed in despair. Michelangelo\u2019s figures are heavy, their musculature overemphasized\u2014these are the bodies of the afterlife, rooted in the artist\u2019s imagination and the brawny nudes of antiquity rather than reality. His\u00a0<em>maniera\u00a0<\/em>is unmistakable.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1589px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/7806204022_369b318a1c_o-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/7806204022_369b318a1c_o-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Pontormo, Entombment (or Deposition from the Cross), oil on panel painting depicting the Lamentation over the Dead Christ, featuring multiple figures surrounding the lifeless body of Jesus. The composition includes vibrant colors, detailed drapery, and expressive postures, emphasizing grief and reverence within a classical arched frame.\" width=\"1589\" height=\"2560\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pontormo,<em> Entombment (or Deposition from the Cross),<\/em> oil on panel, 1525\u201328, Capponi Chapel, Santa Felicit\u00e0, Florence (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/cTNQuw\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Early mannerist qualities are found in the work of Florentine painter Andrea del Sarto, and his followers Jacopo Pontormo and Rosso Fiorentino. Pontormo\u2019s\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/jacopo-pontormo-entombment-or-deposition-from-the-cross\/\">Deposition (or Entombment)<\/a>,<\/em>\u00a0created for the Capponi Chapel,\u00a0has figures swirling across the picture plane, dislocated in time and space.\u00a0No narrative elements, like the cross and concrete environment of Fra Angelico\u2019s 1432\u00a0<em>Deposition<\/em>, serve to ground and clarify the image. The contorted figures and bizarre use of color recall more the work of Michelangelo than they do visual reality.<\/p>\n<p>Ambiguous compositions, like Pontormo\u2019s\u00a0<em>Deposition<\/em>, seem to require sophisticated audiences already familiar with both visual and spiritual traditions. At the same time, a case may be made for the broader public appeal of such imagery. While the references to and departures from artistic tradition may not have been readily appreciated by non-elites, the disorienting effect of the image may have indeed spoken to any viewer familiar with the unsettling effects of grief.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"mannerism-on-the-move\">Mannerism on the move<\/h3>\n<p>The forms explored by mannerist artists spread rapidly to other parts of Italy and to parts of northern Europe, the Iberian Peninsula, the Americas, and even Asia. In each area, mannerism developed differently, reflecting regional visual traditions, as well as cultural, political, and religious formations.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1000px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/P1290817_Fontainebleau_chateau_rwk.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/P1290817_Fontainebleau_chateau_rwk.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate, long hallway with wooden parquet flooring, intricate carved wooden paneling, and large paintings above the paneling on both sides. The ceiling features detailed woodwork and chandeliers, with natural light streaming through tall windows, highlighting the historical and artistic grandeur of the space.\" width=\"1000\" height=\"759\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Gallery of Francis I, Ch\u00e2teau de Fontainebleau, 1528\u20131540 (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Galerie_Fran%C3%A7ois_Ier#\/media\/File:P1290817_Fontainebleau_chateau_rwk.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Mbzt<\/a>\u00a0, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>After the sack of Rome in 1527, the French King, Francis I, brought mannerist art to France by importing the Florentine artists Rosso Fiorentino and Benvenuto Cellini, as well as Francesco Primaticcio (who had trained with Giulio Romano). Under Francis\u2019s patronage, these artists helped transform a rugged hunting lodge into the spectacular\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/french-mannerism-fontainebleau\/\">palace of Fontainebleau<\/a>, and where a new form of mannerism would influence generations of French artists. The Italian Jesuit artist\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bitti-coronation-virgin\/\">Bernardo Bitti<\/a>\u00a0would emigrate to Lima in the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-the-spanish-viceroyalties-in-the-americas\/\">Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru<\/a>, and paint large-scale paintings with the classicizing visual language of the\u00a0<em>maniera<\/em>.<\/p>\n<p>Artists from other European regions also trained in Italy, absorbing mannerist tendencies. Spanish artist Luis de Vargas spent time in Italy with artists like Sebastiano del Piombo and Giorgio Vasari (among others), bringing back what he learned and adapted to the Iberian Peninsula. Vargas would create elaborate retablos (altarpieces) filled with painting and sculpture, for the Cathedral and the Church of Santa Cruz in Seville.<\/p>\n<p>Likewise, the Flemish painter Maarten de Vos, who is thought to have spent time in the workshop of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/tintoretto-last-supper\/\">Tintoretto<\/a>\u00a0(a Venetian mannerist artist), created images infused with rich color, elegant elongated figures, and an overtly decorative style. Engravings of De Vos\u2019s works circulated across Europe, and eventually found their way across the Atlantic Ocean to the Spanish viceroyalties.<\/p>\n<p>In Prague, under the patronage of Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph II, the Dutch printmaker Hendrik Goltzius produced numerous engravings, such as\u00a0<em>Apollo,\u00a0<\/em>1588, notable for their dramatic gestures, flamboyant figure treatment, and conspicuous display of artistic virtuosity.\u00a0Goltzius would become one of the most influential mannerist printmakers of his day.\u00a0Goltzius borrowed mannerist strategies from Bartholomaeus Spranger, a Flemish artist who studied and traveled in Italy, and brought drawings and ideas back to Rudolph II\u2019s court.<\/p>\n<p>Simply put, the spread of mannerism was global.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"why-mannerism-matters\">Why mannerism matters<\/h3>\n<p>The ambiguity of mannerism and often sensuous treatment of figures proved problematic for some. The Reformation brought with it a new scrutiny of religious images. The Augustinian monk Martin Luther and other Protestant leaders were concerned that images could mislead or be treated as idols. While the Catholic Church never wavered in its commitment to the validity of images as tools for religious practice, the style of religious art did become an issue. At the Council of Trent (1545\u20131563), a series of meetings intended to solidify Catholic doctrine and strengthen the threatened church, it was declared that religious images must be clear, unambiguous, and lead viewers to faithful contemplation. Art should be for celebrating and instructing in the faith, not for showcasing artistic skill. The sensuosity, ambiguity, and conspicuous artistry of mannerism was not to be tolerated in sacred art.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1077px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/The-Adoration-of-the-Shepherds.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/The-Adoration-of-the-Shepherds.jpg\" alt=\"El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos), Adoration of the Shepherds painting depicting the Nativity scene with Mary holding baby Jesus surrounded by adoring figures and angels above. The composition uses dramatic lighting and rich colors like red, blue, green, and yellow to highlight key figures and create a sense of divine presence.\" width=\"1077\" height=\"1920\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">El Greco (Domenikos Theotokopoulos), <em>Adoration of the Shepherds<\/em>, c. 1612\u20131614, oil on canvas, 126 x 71\u2033 \/ 319 x 180 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.museodelprado.es\/en\/the-collection\/art-work\/the-adoration-of-the-shepherds\/4fb170c0-d4cf-4c3e-8293-a8d7152aff78\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Museo Nacional del Prado, Madrid<\/a>, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:The_Adoration_of_the_Shepherds,_El_Greco.jpg\">Tiberioclaudio99<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>This call for conservatism in art on the part of the Catholic\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/protestant-reformation-part-4-of-4\/\">Counter Reformation<\/a>, the movement behind the Council of Trent, did not bring an end to mannerist explorations. The style continued in new ways and across the global Catholic landscape. Devout Catholics, such as the Duke of Florence, Cosimo I de\u2019Medici (who was eager to garner the Pope\u2019s approval in his quest to become Grand Duke of Tuscany), continued to patronize mannerist forms\u00a0in paint and stone\u2014and even tapestries. El Greco, an artist who is thought to almost perfectly embody the Counter-Reformation Church\u2019s desire to produce emotionally affective religious works, borrowed a great deal from mannerism. In fact, El Greco\u2019s work demonstrates that mannerism extends beyond the sixteenth century, attesting once again to the ways in which visual strategies ebbed and flowed differently in various parts of the world.<\/p>\n<p>Later artists are indebted to the mannerists. The dynamic compositions, rich color choices, and dramatic brushwork of later\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-baroque-art\/\">Baroque<\/a>\u00a0traditions all owe a debt to mannerist experimentation.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"el-greco-adoration-of-the-shepherds\">El Greco,\u00a0<em>Adoration of the Shepherds<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>A Greek painter who settled in Spain, El Greco is known for his elongated figures, idiosyncratic color, and emotive spirituality.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"El Greco, Adoration of the Shepherds\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/3_-hYeuJTzQ?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"baroque-art-an-introduction\">Baroque art, an introduction<\/h2>\n<figure style=\"width: 2048px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/52293495511_d288ecc996_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/52293495511_d288ecc996_k.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph of Gian Lorenzo Bernini, View to Cathedra Petri (or Chair of St. Peter) showing an ornate altar inside a grand cathedral, featuring a central sculptural group illuminated by a glowing circular stained glass window with a dove symbol. The altar is framed by four large twisted columns and surrounded by intricate architectural details, including tall marble pillars and elaborate gold decorations on the ceiling\" width=\"2048\" height=\"1359\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Gian Lorenzo Bernini, View to <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bernini-cathedra-petri-chair-of-st-peter\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Cathedra Petri\u00a0<\/a>(or Chair of St. Peter), 1647\u201353, gilded bronze, gold, wood, stained glass (Apse of Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City, Rome; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nEZQkz\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"rome-from-the-whore-of-babylon-to-the-resplendent-bride-of-christ\">Rome: From the \u201cWhore of Babylon\u201d to the resplendent bride of Christ<\/h3>\n<p>When\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-protestant-reformation\/\">Martin Luther<\/a>\u00a0tacked his 95 theses to the doors of Wittenberg Cathedral in 1517, protesting the Catholic Church\u2019s corruption, he initiated a movement that would transform the religious, political, and artistic landscape of Europe. For the next century, Europe would be in turmoil as new political and religious boundaries were determined, often through bloody military conflicts. Only in 1648, with the signing of the Treaty of Westphalia, did the conflicts between Protestants and Catholics subside in continental Europe.<\/p>\n<p>Martin Luther focused his critique on what he saw as the Church\u2019s greed and abuse of power. He called Rome, the seat of papal power, \u201cthe whore of Babylon,\u201d decked out in the finery of expensive art, grand architecture, and sumptuous banquets. The Church responded to the crisis in two ways: by internally addressing issues of corruption and by defending the doctrines rejected by the Protestants. Thus, while the first two decades of the 16th century were a period of lavish spending for the Papacy, the middle decades were a period of austerity. As one visitor to Rome noted in the 1560s, the entire city had become a convent. Piety and asceticism ruled the day.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/Annibale_Carracci_e_Caravaggio_Cappella_Cerasi-scaled.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Annibale_Carracci_e_Caravaggio_Cappella_Cerasi-scaled-1.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate chapel interior featuring three large religious paintings framed by intricate marble and gold architectural details. Central painting depicts a seated figure surrounded by disciples, while side paintings show dramatic biblical scenes with vivid colors and dynamic compositions.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1689\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">View of the Cerasi Chapel in Santa Maria del Popolo in Rome with Annibale Carracci\u2019s altarpiece, <em>The Assumption of the Virgin<\/em>, 1600\u201301, oil on canvas, 245 cm \u00d7 155 cm, and paintings by Caravaggio on the side walls (The Crucifixion of St. Peter on the left, and The Conversion of Paul on the right) (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/CCZ3EA\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Frederick Fenyvessy<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>By the end of the 16th century, the Catholic Church was once again feeling optimistic, even triumphant. It had emerged from the crisis with renewed vigor and clarity of purpose. Shepherding the faithful\u2014instructing them on Catholic doctrines and inspiring virtuous behavior\u2014took center stage. Keen to rebuild Rome\u2019s reputation as a holy city, the Papacy embarked on extensive building and decoration campaigns aimed at highlighting its ancient origins, its beliefs, and its divinely sanctioned authority. In the eyes of faithful Catholics, Rome was not an unfaithful whore, but a pure bride, beautifully adorned for her union with her divine spouse.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-art-of-persuasion-to-instruct-to-delight-to-move\">The art of persuasion: To instruct, to delight, to move<\/h3>\n<p>While the Protestants harshly criticized the cult of images, the Catholic Church ardently\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-council-of-trent-and-the-call-to-reform-art\/\">embraced the religious power of art<\/a>. The visual arts, the Church argued, played a key role in guiding the faithful. They were certainly as important as the written and spoken word, and perhaps even more important since they were accessible to the learned and the unlearned alike. In order to be effective in its pastoral role, religious art had to be clear, persuasive, and powerful. Not only did it have to instruct, but it also had to inspire. It had to move the faithful to feel the reality of Christ\u2019s sacrifice, the suffering of the martyrs, and the visions of the saints.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2119px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/GG_307_Gesamt_x.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/GG_307_Gesamt_x.jpg\" alt=\"Caravaggio, The Crowning with Thorns Baroque painting depicting a scene of intense emotion and physical interaction, featuring four men with three holding sticks and one armored figure observing. The central figure, Christ, draped in a red cloth, is bent forward, highlighting themes of suffering and conflict through dramatic lighting and realistic human forms.\" width=\"2119\" height=\"1595\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Caravaggio, <em>The Crowning with Thorns<\/em>, 1602\u201304, oil on canvas, 165.5 x 127 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.khm.at\/objektdb\/detail\/427\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna<\/a>, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Michelangelo_Merisi,_called_Caravaggio_-_The_Crowning_with_Thorns_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The Church\u2019s emphasis on art\u2019s pastoral role prompted\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/global-baroque-introduction\/\">artists to experiment<\/a>\u00a0with new and more direct means of engaging the viewer. Artists like\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/caravaggio-and-caravaggisti-in-17th-century-europe\/\">Caravaggio<\/a>\u00a0turned to a powerful and dramatic realism, accentuated by bold contrasts of light and dark, and tightly cropped compositions that enhance the physical and emotional immediacy of the depicted narrative.<\/p>\n<p>Other artists, like\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/annibale-carracci-christ-appearing-to-saint-peter-on-the-appian-way\/\">Annibale Carracci<\/a>\u00a0(who also experimented with realism), ultimately settled on a more classical visual language, inspired by the vibrant palette, idealized forms, and balanced compositions of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/toward-the-high-renaissance-an-introduction\/\">High Renaissance<\/a>. Still others, like\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/il-gesu-rome\/\">Giovanni Battista Gaulli<\/a>, turned to daring feats of illusionism that blurred not only the boundaries between painting, sculpture, and architecture, but also those between the real and depicted worlds. In so doing, the divine was made physically present and palpable.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1420px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/G.B.Gaulli-Triumph_of_the_Name_of_Jesus-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/G.B.Gaulli-Triumph_of_the_Name_of_Jesus-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Giovanni Battista Gaulli, The Triumph of the Name of Jesus, Baroque ceiling fresco depicting a dramatic heavenly scene with numerous angels, saints, and divine figures surrounded by golden architectural elements. The fresco features dynamic movement, vivid colors, and intricate details framed by sculpted white figures and elaborate gold decorations.\" width=\"1420\" height=\"2560\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Giovanni Battista Gaulli, also known as il Baciccio, <em>The Triumph of the Name of Jesus<\/em>, 1672\u201385, Il Ges\u00f9 ceiling fresco (Rome, Italy; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:G.B.Gaulli-Triumph_of_the_Name_of_Jesus.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">LivioAndronico<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Whether through shocking realism, dynamic movement, or exuberant ornamentation, seventeenth-century art is meant to impress. It aims to convince the viewer of the truth of its message by impacting the senses, awakening the emotions, and activating\u2014even sharing\u2014the viewer\u2019s space.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"baroquethe-word-the-style-the-period\">\u201cBaroque\u201d\u2014the word, the style, the period<\/h3>\n<p>In the context of European history, the period from c. 1585 to c. 1700\/1730 is often called the Baroque era. The word \u201cbaroque\u201d derives from the Portuguese and Spanish words for a large, irregularly shaped pearl (\u201c<em>barroco<\/em>\u201d and \u201c<em>barrueco<\/em>,\u201d respectively). Eighteenth-century critics were the first to apply the term to the art of the 17th century. It was not a term of praise. To the eyes of these critics, who favored the restraint and order of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/neoclassicism-an-introduction\/\">Neoclassicism<\/a>, the works of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bernini-david-2\/\">Bernini<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/borromini-san-carlo-alle-quattro-fontane\/\">Borromini<\/a>, and Pietro da Cortona appeared bizarre, absurd, even diseased\u2014in other words, misshapen, like an imperfect pearl.<\/p>\n<p>By the middle of the 19th century, the word had lost its pejorative implications and was used to describe the ornate and complex qualities present in many examples of 17th-century art, music, and literature. Eventually, the term came to designate the historical period as a whole.<\/p>\n<p>In the context of the painting, for example, the stark realism of<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/zurbaran-the-martyrdom-of-saint-serapion\/\">\u00a0Zurbar\u00e1n<\/a>\u2019s altarpieces, the quiet intimacy of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/johannes-vermeer-the-glass-of-wine\/\">Vermeer<\/a>\u2019s domestic interiors, and the restrained classicism of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/nicolas-poussin-landscape-with-saint-john-on-patmos\/\">Poussin<\/a>\u2019s landscapes are all \u201cBaroque\u201d (now with a capital \u201cB\u201d to indicate the historical period), regardless of the absence of the stylistic traits originally associated with the term.<\/p>\n<p>Scholars continue to debate the validity of this label, admitting the usefulness of having a label for this distinct historical period, while also acknowledging its limitations in characterizing the variety of artistic styles present in the 17th century.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"how-to-recognize-baroque-art-with-berninis-david\">How to recognize Baroque art with Bernini\u2019s <em>David<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>Painted and sculpted bodies move into our space. Everything feels like it\u2019s in motion, including the light.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"How to recognize Baroque art\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/EFHPAbHaoqk?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"introduction-to-baroque-architecture\">Introduction to Baroque Architecture<\/h2>\n<p>Like its sculpture and painting counterparts, Baroque architecture focused on the dramatic. Renaissance architecture emphasized symmetry and balance often relying on the regular forms of circles and squares, such as with Bramante\u2019s <em>Tempietto<\/em>. In contrast, Baroque architecture utilized the trapezoid, the oval, diagonal lines, and theatrical spaces. Often working on a large-scale, architects like Bernini and Borromini were working for the Counter-Reformation Catholic Church. Architectural spaces designed in the context of the Counter-Reformation reaffirmed the power and authority of the Catholic Church while appearing dynamic and visually engaging for the viewer.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"francesco-borromini-san-carlo-alle-quattro-fontane-rome\">Francesco Borromini, San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome<\/h2>\n<p>A Baroque architect whose idiosyncratic use of curves was nonetheless based on geometry, Borromini built complex and sometimes controversial designs.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"Geometry and motion in Borromini&#39;s San Carlo\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/r1B3UkErHes?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"gian-lorenzo-bernini-saint-peters-square\">Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Saint Peter\u2019s Square<\/h2>\n<p>A sculptor, architect, and painter, Gian Lorenzo Bernini\u2019s stone carving and innovation in dynamic architectural spaces was in service of the Counter-Reformation. Central to the Counter Reformation, Bernini\u2019s double colonnades activate Saint Peter\u2019s and reach out into the city.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-4\" title=\"Bernini, St. Peter\u2019s Square (Piazza San Pietro), Vatican City\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/9UT43MHdTIg?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"gian-lorenzo-bernini-baldacchino-saint-peters\">Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Baldacchino, Saint Peter\u2019s<\/h2>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-5\" title=\"Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Baldacchino\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/EFsaaK1w2Ao?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"michelangelo-last-judgment-sistine-chapel\">Michelangelo,\u00a0<em>Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel<\/h2>\n<figure style=\"width: 1691px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/LastJudgement.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/LastJudgement.jpg\" alt=\"Michelangelo, Last Judgment, Sistine Chapel, altar wall fresco covering an entire chapel wall depicting numerous human figures in dynamic poses against a blue sky background. The artwork features detailed scenes of judgment and resurrection, with vibrant colors and intricate compositions framed by architectural elements and windows.\" width=\"1691\" height=\"1295\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Michelangelo,<em> Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel, altar wall, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome) (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/HTbiqQ\">Francisco Anzola<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>\u201cHe will come to judge the living and the dead.\u201d from the Apostle\u2019s Creed, an early statement of Christian belief<\/p>\n<p>This is it. The moment all\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christianity-an-introduction\/\">Christians<\/a>\u00a0await with both hope and dread. This is the end of time, the beginning of eternity when the mortal becomes immortal, when the elect join Christ in his heavenly kingdom and the damned are cast into the unending torments of hell. What a daunting task: to visualize the endgame of earthly existence\u2014and furthermore, to do so in the Sistine Chapel, the private chapel of the papal court, where the leaders of the Church gathered to celebrate feast day liturgies, where the pope\u2019s body was laid in state before his funeral, and where\u2014to this day\u2014the College of Cardinals meets to elect the next pope.<\/p>\n<p>No artist in sixteenth-century Italy was better positioned for this task than\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/who-was-michelangelo\/\">Michelangelo<\/a>, whose completion of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-ceiling-of-the-sistine-chapel\/\">chapel\u2019s ceiling<\/a>\u00a0in 1512 had sealed his reputation as the greatest master of the human figure\u2014especially the male nude. Pope Paul III was well aware of this when he charged Michelangelo with repainting the chapel\u2019s altar wall with the Last Judgment. With its focus on the resurrection of the body, this was the perfect subject for Michelangelo.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"historical-pictorial-contexts\">Historical &amp; pictorial contexts<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 785px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Portrait_of_Pope_Paul_III_Farnese_by_Titian_-_National_Museum_of_Capodimonte.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Portrait_of_Pope_Paul_III_Farnese_by_Titian_-_National_Museum_of_Capodimonte.jpeg\" alt=\"Titian, Portrait of Pope Paul III painting depicts a seated man wearing a rich red velvet robe with white sleeves, highlighting textures and folds of fabric. The composition emphasizes the subject's dignified posture and detailed hands, suggesting his religious significance.\" width=\"785\" height=\"1024\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Titian, <em>Portrait of Pope Paul III<\/em>, c. 1543, oil on canvas, 113.3 x 88.8 cm (Museo e Real Bosco di Capodimonte, Naples, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Portrait_of_Pope_Paul_III_Farnese_(by_Titian)_-_National_Museum_of_Capodimonte.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The\u00a0<em>Last Judgment<\/em>\u00a0was one of the first art works Paul III commissioned upon his election to the papacy in 1534. The church he inherited was in crisis; the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/sack-of-rome\/\">Sack of Rome<\/a>\u00a0(1527) was still a recent memory. Paul sought to address not only the many abuses that had sparked the\u00a0Protestant Reformation, but also to affirm the legitimacy of the Catholic Church and the orthodoxy of its doctrines (including the institution of the papacy). The visual arts would play a key role in his agenda, beginning with the message he directed to his inner circle by commissioning the Last Judgment.<\/p>\n<p>The decorative program of the Sistine Chapel encapsulates the history of salvation. It begins with God\u2019s creation of the world and his covenant with the people of Israel (represented in the Old Testament scenes on the ceiling and south wall), and continues with the earthly\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/standard-scenes-from-the-life-of-christ-in-art\/\">life of Christ<\/a>\u00a0(on the north wall). The addition of the Last Judgment completed the narrative. The papal court, representatives of the earthly church, participated in this narrative; it filled the gap between Christ\u2019s life and his\u00a0Second Coming.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-composition\">The composition<\/h3>\n<p>Michelangelo\u2019s\u00a0<em>Last Judgment<\/em>\u00a0is among the most powerful renditions of this moment in the history of Christian art. Over 300 muscular figures, in an infinite variety of dynamic poses, fill the wall to its edges. Unlike the scenes on the walls and the ceiling, the\u00a0<em>Last Judgment<\/em>\u00a0is not bound by a painted border. It is all encompassing and expands beyond the viewer\u2019s field of vision. Unlike other sacred narratives, which portray events of the past, this one implicates the viewer. It has yet to happen and when it does, the viewer will be among those whose fate is determined.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 930px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/930px-Last_Judgement_Michelangelo.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/930px-Last_Judgement_Michelangelo.jpeg\" alt=\"Michelangelo, Last Judgment, Sistine Chapel, altar wall fresco painting depicting the Last Judgment with Christ at the center surrounded by angels, saints, and resurrected souls ascending or descending. The composition features vibrant colors, dynamic poses, and a dramatic contrast between saved figures on the right and damned souls on the left, illustrating themes of salvation and damnation.\" width=\"930\" height=\"1024\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Michelangelo,<em> Last Judgment,<\/em> Sistine Chapel, altar wall, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Despite the density of figures, the composition is clearly organized into tiers and quadrants, with subgroups and meaningful pairings that facilitate the fresco\u2019s legibility. As a whole, it rises on the left and descends on the right, recalling the scales used for the weighing of souls in many depictions of the Last Judgment.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2189px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/DetailCenter.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/DetailCenter.jpg\" alt=\"Detail of Christ at the center surrounded by Mary, angels, saints with Christ's right hand raised above his head.\" width=\"2189\" height=\"1249\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Christ, Mary, and Saints (detail), Michelangelo, <em>Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel, altar wall, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Christ is the fulcrum of this complex composition. A powerful, muscular figure, he steps forward in a twisting gesture that sets in motion the final sorting of souls (the damned on his left, and the blessed on his right). Nestled under his raised arm is the Virgin Mary. Michelangelo changed her pose from one of open-armed pleading on humanity\u2019s behalf\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/euploos.uffizi.it\/scheda-catalogo.php?invn=170+S\">seen in a preparatory drawing<\/a>, to one of acquiescence to Christ\u2019s judgment. The time for intercession is over. Judgment has been passed.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1110px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Angel.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Angel.jpg\" alt=\"Detail of Last Judgement with angels trumpeting in front of a blue background.\" width=\"1110\" height=\"1297\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Angels (detail), Michelangelo, <em>Last Judgment,<\/em> Sistine Chapel, altar wall, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Directly below Christ a group of wingless angels (left), their cheeks puffed with effort, sound the trumpets that call the dead to rise, while two others hold open the books recording the deeds of the resurrected. The angel with the book of the damned emphatically angles its down to show the damned that their fate is justly based on their misdeeds.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1484px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/TheDead.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/TheDead.jpg\" alt=\"The dead rise from their graves and float to heaven, some assisted by angels. In the upper right, a couple is pulled to heaven on rosary beads, and just below that a risen body is caught in violent tug of war (detail), Michelangelo, Last Judgment\" width=\"1484\" height=\"1800\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">The dead rise from their graves and float to heaven, some assisted by angels. In the upper right, a couple is pulled to heaven on rosary beads, and just below that a risen body is caught in violent tug of war (detail), Michelangelo,<em> Last Judgment,<\/em> Sistine Chapel, altar wall, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome;\u00a0photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"the-elect-those-going-to-heaven\">The elect (those going to heaven)<\/h3>\n<p>On the lower left of the composition (Christ\u2019s right), the dead emerge from their graves, shedding their burial shrouds. Some rise up effortlessly, drawn by an invisible force, while others are assisted by herculean angels, one of whom lifts a pair of souls that cling to a strand of rosary beads. This detail reaffirms a doctrine contested by the Protestants: that prayer and good works, and not just faith and divine grace, play a role in determining one\u2019s fate in the afterlife. Directly below, a risen body is caught in violent tug of war, pulled on one end by two angels and on the other by a horned demon who has escaped through a crevice in the central mound. This breach in the earth provides a glimpse of the fires of hell.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1388px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Demons.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Demons.jpg\" alt=\"Demons drag the damned to hell, while angels beat down those who struggle to escape their fate (detail), Michelangelo, Last Judgment.\" width=\"1388\" height=\"824\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Demons drag the damned to hell, while angels beat down those who struggle to escape their fate (detail), Michelangelo, Last Judgment, Sistine Chapel, altar wall, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"the-damned-those-going-to-hell\">The damned (those going to hell)<\/h3>\n<p>On the right of the composition (Christ\u2019s left), demons drag the damned to hell, while angels beat down those who struggle to escape their fate (image above). One soul is both pummeled by an angel and dragged by a demon, head first; a money bag and two keys dangles from his chest. His is the sin of avarice. Another soul\u2014exemplifying the sin of pride\u2014dares to fight back, arrogantly contesting divine judgment, while a third (at the far right) is pulled by his scrotum (his sin was lust). These sins were specifically singled out in sermons delivered to the papal court.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1726px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Charon.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Charon.jpg\" alt=\"Charon drives the damned onto hell\u2019s shores and in the lower right corner stands the ass-eared Minos (detail), Michelangelo, Last Judgment.\" width=\"1726\" height=\"928\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Charon drives the damned onto hell\u2019s shores and in the lower right corner stands the ass-eared Minos (detail), Michelangelo, <em>Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel, altar wall, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In the lower right corner, Charon\u2014the ferryman from Greek mythology who transports souls to the underworld\u2014swings his oar as he drives the damned onto hell\u2019s shores (image above). In the lower right corner stands another mythological character, the ass-eared Minos, his own carnal sinfulness indicated by the snake that bites his genitals. He stands at the very edge of hell, judging the new-comers to determine their eternal punishment.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"in-the-company-of-christ\">In the company of Christ<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/TwoGuys-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/TwoGuys-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Side by side detail images of a fresco depicting muscular, bearded men engaged in animated discussion, with one holding a book and scrolls. The artwork features detailed human anatomy, earthy tones, and dynamic poses.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"2183\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Left: St. John the Baptist; right: St. Peter (detail), Michelangelo, Last Judgment, altar wall, Sistine Chapel, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Michelangelo_-_Cristo_Juiz.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Tetraktys<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>While such details were meant to provoke terror in the viewer, Michelangelo\u2019s painting is primarily about the triumph of Christ. The realm of heaven dominates. The elect encircle Christ; they loom large in the foreground and extend far into the depth of the painting, dissolving the boundary of the picture plane. Some hold the instruments of their martyrdom: Andrew the X-shaped cross, Lawrence the gridiron, St. Sebastian a bundle of arrows, to name only a few.<\/p>\n<p>Especially prominent are St. John Baptist and St. Peter who flank Christ to the left and right and share his massive proportions (above). John, the last prophet, is identifiable by the camel pelt that covers his groin and dangles behind his legs; and, Peter, the first pope, is identified by the keys he returns to Christ. His role as the keeper of the keys to the kingdom of heaven has ended. This gesture was a vivid reminder to the pope that his reign as Christ\u2019s vicar was temporary\u2014in the end, he too will to answer to Christ.<\/p>\n<p>In the lunettes (semi-circular spaces) at the top right and left, angels display the instruments of Christ\u2019s\u00a0Passion, thus connecting this triumphal moment to Christ\u2019s sacrificial death. This portion of the wall projects one foot forward, making it visible to the priest at the altar below as he commemorates Christ\u2019s sacrifice in the liturgy of the Eucharist.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1521px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Lunette.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Lunette.jpg\" alt=\"Lunette with angels carrying the instruments of the Passion of Christ, (detail), Michelangelo, Last Judgment\" width=\"1521\" height=\"1091\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Lunette with angels carrying the instruments of the Passion of Christ, (detail), Michelangelo, <em>Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"critical-response-masterpiece-or-scandal\">Critical response: masterpiece or scandal?<\/h3>\n<p>Shortly after its unveiling in 1541, the Roman agent of Cardinal Gonzaga of Mantua reported: \u201cThe work is of such beauty that your excellency can imagine that there is no lack of those who condemn it. . . . [T]o my mind it is a work unlike any other to be seen anywhere.\u201d Many praised the work as a masterpiece. They saw Michelangelo\u2019s distinct figural style, with its complex poses, extreme foreshortening, and powerful (some might say excessive) musculature, as worthy of both the subject matter and the location. The sheer physicality of these muscular nudes affirmed the Catholic doctrine of bodily resurrection (that on the day of judgment, the dead would rise in their bodies, not as incorporeal souls).<\/p>\n<p>Others were scandalized\u2014above all by the nudity\u2014despite its theological accuracy, for the resurrected would enter heaven not clothed but nude, as created by God. Critics also objected to the contorted poses (some resulting in the indecorous presentation of buttocks), the breaks with pictorial tradition (the beardless Christ, the wingless angels), and the appearance of mythology (the figures of Charon and Minos) in a scene portraying sacred history. Critics saw these embellishments as distractions from the fresco\u2019s spiritual message. They accused Michelangelo of caring more about showing off his creative abilities than portraying sacred truth with clarity and decorum. Religious art was the \u201cbook of the illiterate\u201d and as such should be easy to understand.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Apollo-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Apollo-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Side by side comparison of freestanding nude male Greek sculpture with his left arm raised next to detail of Christ from Last Judgment with his right arm raised comparing the body compositions.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1965\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Left: <em>Apollo Belvedere<\/em> (Roman copy of a Greek(?) original), original late 4th century B.C.E. marble, 2.3 m high (Vatican Museums, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jdNJrH\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>); right: Christ (detail), Michelangelo,\u00a0<em>Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Michelangelo_-_Cristo_Juiz.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Tetraktys<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Michelangelo\u2019s\u00a0<em>Last Judgment<\/em>, however, was not painted for an unlearned, lay audience. To the contrary, it was designed for a very specific, elite and erudite audience. This audience would understand and appreciate his figural style and iconographic innovations. They would recognize, for example, that his inclusion of Charon and Minos was inspired by Dante\u2019s\u00a0<em>Inferno<\/em>, a text Michelangelo greatly admired. They would see in the youthful face of Christ his reference to the\u00a0<em>Apollo Belvedere<\/em>, an ancient Greek Hellenistic sculpture in the papal collection lauded for its ideal beauty. Thus, Michelangelo glosses the identity of Christ as the \u201cSun of Righteousness\u201d (Malachi 4:2).<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"a-self-portrait\">A self-portrait<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 539px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/SaintBartholomew.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/SaintBartholomew.jpg\" alt=\"A fresco painting depicting a muscular, bearded man seated on a cloud, holding a skin or pelt and a knife, with two other figures partially visible behind him. The artwork features detailed anatomy, muted earth tones, and a dramatic use of light and shadow to emphasize the figures' forms and expressions.\" width=\"539\" height=\"1131\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">St. Bartholomew (detail), Michelangelo, <em>Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Even more poignant is Michelangelo\u2019s insertion of himself into the fresco. His is the face on the flayed skin held by St. Bartholomew, an empty shell that hangs precariously between heaven and hell. To his learned audience, the flayed skin would bring to mind not only the circumstances of the saint\u2019s martyrdom but also the flaying of Marsyas by Apollo. In his foolish arrogance, Marsyas challenged Apollo to a musical contest, believing his skill could surpass that of the god of music himself. His punishment for such hubris was to be flayed alive. That Michelangelo should identify with Marsyas is not surprising. His contemporaries had dubbed him the \u201cdivine\u201d Michelangelo for his ability to rival God himself in giving form to the ideal body. Often he lamented his youthful pride, which had led him to focus on the beauty of art rather than the salvation of his soul. So, here, in a work done in his mid sixties, he acknowledges his sin and expresses his hope that Christ, unlike Apollo, will have mercy upon him and welcome him into the company of the elect.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"an-epic-painting\">An epic painting<\/h3>\n<p>Like Dante in his great epic poem,\u00a0<em>The Divine Comedy<\/em>, Michelangelo sought to create an epic painting, worthy of the grandeur of the moment. He used metaphor and allusion to ornament his subject. His educated audience would delight in his visual and literary references.<\/p>\n<p>Originally intended for a restricted audience, reproductive engravings of the fresco quickly spread it far and wide, placing it at the center of lively debates on the merits and abuses of religious art. While some hailed it as the pinnacle of artistic accomplishment, others deemed it the epitome of all that could go wrong with religious art and called for its destruction. In the end, a compromise was reached. Shortly after the artist\u2019s death in 1564, Daniele Da Volterra was hired to cover bare buttocks and groins with bits of drapery and repaint Saint Catherine of Alexandria, originally portrayed unclothed, and St. Blaise, who hovered menacingly over her with his steel combs.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 720px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Saints.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Saints.jpg\" alt=\"A painting depicting muscular male figures engaged in various activities, set against a cloudy sky background. Key elements include a man in green holding a curved wooden object, another with a rake-like tool, and a central figure with long hair and a muscular build.\" width=\"720\" height=\"687\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Clockwise: Saint Blaise, Saint Catherine and Saint Sebastian (detail), Michelangelo, <em>Last Judgment,<\/em> Sistine Chapel, fresco, 1534\u201341 (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Last_Judgement_(Michelangelo).jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Alonso de Mendoza<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In contrast to its limited audience in the sixteenth century, now the\u00a0<em>Last Judgment<\/em>\u00a0is see by thousands of tourists daily. However, during papal conclaves it becomes once again a powerful reminder to the College of Cardinals of their place in the story of salvation,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.msnbc.com\/jansing-co\/inside-the-conclave-how-the-cardinals-choose-msna19714\">as they gather to elect Christ\u2019s earthly vicar (the next Pope)<\/a>\u2014the person who will be responsible for shepherding the faithful into the community of the elect.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"caravaggio-calling-of-saint-matthew\">Caravaggio,\u00a0<em>Calling of Saint Matthew<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>A key figure in Counter-Reformation religious art, Caravaggio\u2019s focus on realism and use of tenebrism engaged viewers in profound moments of faith.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-6\" title=\"A moment of spiritual awakening: Caravaggio&#39;s Calling of Saint Matthew\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/-yxSjUvh0g8?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Caravaggio\u2019s <em>Calling of Saint Matthew<\/em> exemplifies the 17<sup>th<\/sup> century Baroque style with its dramatic presentation of Biblical subject matter. Unlike Renaissance paintings where Christ is often placed in the center of the <strong>composition<\/strong> at the <strong>vanishing point<\/strong> of <strong>linear perspective<\/strong>, Caravaggio used an <strong>asymmetrical composition.<\/strong> Christ is placed on the far right of the painting almost completely shrouded in darkness. The viewer follows the <strong>diagonal line<\/strong> of <strong>light<\/strong> streaming above Christ\u2019s head toward Matthew. In a typical Renaissance painting, a natural <strong>light<\/strong> source is logically perceivable: a window, the sun, a candle, etc. Here, however, <strong>light<\/strong> does not relate to a natural source. The window above Christ\u2019s extended arm does not illuminate the scene. Rather, the light comes from an unseen, ambiguous source. To further enhance the theatricality of the scene, Caravaggio employed an extreme form of <strong>chiaroscuro<\/strong> modeling: <strong>tenebroso<\/strong>. With dark <strong>shadows<\/strong> and bright <strong>highlights<\/strong>, the tenebroso lighting magnifies the drama of Matthew\u2019s spiritual awakening. In a Renaissance painting, Christ is often the brightest figure in scene; however, here Christ seems to emerge from the shadows bringing <strong>light<\/strong> with him to illuminate the earthly sinner, Matthew. In terms of <strong>pictorial space<\/strong>, Caravaggio used tenebroso and <strong>overlapping<\/strong> of <strong>forms<\/strong> to suggest three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional canvas. He also condensed the picture plane by bringing the figures forward in <strong>pictorial space<\/strong> and into conversation with us, the viewer.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"caravaggio-and-caravaggisti-in-17th-century-europe\">Caravaggio and Caravaggisti in 17th-century Europe<\/h2>\n<h3 id=\"one-of-the-most-widely-imitated-artists\">One of the most widely imitated artists<\/h3>\n<p>Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio was famously sensitive when it came to matters of artistic originality: he threatened both the painter\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/reni-aurora\/\">Guido Reni<\/a>\u00a0and artist and biographer Giovanni Baglione for copying his style. Despite his best efforts to protect his singular style, however, Caravaggio became one of the most widely imitated artists in the history of Western art.<\/p>\n<p>After his untimely death in 1610, many Italian and non-Italian artists alike came to be considered his \u201cfollowers,\u201d even though they had never met the artist or worked alongside him. Unlike the typical Renaissance master-follower relationship, these artists could claim no direct descent from the studio of Caravaggio (since he did not have one), and in some cases, they had not even seen his paintings first-hand. Some artists imitated Caravaggio for only a brief phase of their careers \u2013 Baglione, Carlo Saraceni, and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/guercino-st-luke-displaying-a-painting-of-the-virgin\/\">Guercino<\/a>, for example\u2014while others remained committed to Caravaggio\u2019s stylistic model for the duration of their lives.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, these painters, often labeled Caravaggisti, emulated aspects of Caravaggio\u2019s style, technique, and choice of subjects and were responsible for the dissemination of Caravaggism across the European continent.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/DP-12413-001-scaled.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/DP-12413-001-scaled-1.jpeg\" alt=\"Caravaggio, The Denial of Saint Peter, painting depicting three figures in close proximity, with one wearing a helmet and armor, suggesting a historical or biblical scene. The composition uses strong contrasts of light and shadow to highlight the figures' expressions and gestures, emphasizing tension or confrontation.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1904\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi), <em>The Denial of Saint Peter,<\/em> 1610, oil on canvas, 94 x 125.4 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/437986\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Metropolitan Museum of Art<\/a>, New York, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"a-distinctive-style\">A distinctive style<\/h3>\n<p>These followers, whether Italian, Spanish, French, or Netherlandish, were especially attracted to Caravaggio\u2019s tenebrism\u2014the use of dark shadows to obscure parts of the composition. Caravaggio\u2019s employment of tenebrism and chiaroscuro, the strong contrast of light and dark, lends his paintings a dramatic effect that has been likened to a spotlit stage.<\/p>\n<p>By combining this theatrical dynamism with careful observation of life, Caravaggio achieved a gritty naturalism in both genre and religious scenes. His subdued palette, half-length figures, and magnification of the picture-plane to create intimate, relatable compositions contributed to Caravaggio\u2019s widespread appeal during the first three decades of the 17th century in Europe.<\/p>\n<p>The unusual darkness and life-like realism of Caravaggio\u2019s paintings accounted in part for his popularity. On the other hand, the types of subject matter and revision of traditional iconographies popularized by Caravaggio had a significant impact on the development of international Caravaggism.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"new-themes-rogues-and-revelers\">New themes: Rogues and revelers<\/h3>\n<p>During his early years in Rome, Caravaggio worked as an assistant in the illustrious workshop of the Cavaliere d\u2019Arpino, but he also completed some of his best-known easel paintings (independent, portable canvases) and sold them on the open market. These paintings included depictions of themes that were uncommon in Roman art at the time and became ubiquitous with the help of the Caravaggisti.<\/p>\n<p>These followers were particularly interested in Caravaggio\u2019s renderings of the seedy underbelly of Roman street-life in the form of\u00a0<em>The Cardsharps<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0<em>The Fortune Teller<\/em>, two of Caravaggio\u2019s most copied paintings, or in the artist\u2019s depiction of music-making as in the\u00a0<em>Musicians<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0<em>The Lute Player<\/em>. Italian artists like Bartolomeo Manfredi and Antiveduto Grammatica, French painters such as Valentin de Boulogne, Georges de La Tour, Nicolas R\u00e9gnier, and Simon Vouet, and Dutchmen Hendrick Ter Brugghen and Gerrit van Honthorst all replicated these subjects or similar themes in obvious admiration of Caravaggio\u2019s original paintings.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/Fortuneteller-scaled.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Fortuneteller-scaled-1.jpeg\" alt=\"Georges de La Tour, The Fortune Teller Baroque-style painting depicting five individuals dressed in elaborate 17th-century attire, engaged in a social interaction. Rich colors and detailed fabrics highlight cultural diversity and status, with notable elements including a red sash, patterned shawl, and distinctive headwear.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"2108\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Georges de La Tour, <em>The Fortune Teller<\/em>, probably 1630s, oil on canvas, 101.9 x 123.5 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/436838\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Metropolitan Museum of Art<\/a>, New York, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 2017px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/download.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/download.jpeg\" alt=\"Caravaggio, The Cardsharps painting depicting three individuals in Renaissance attire engaged in a card game. The scene features rich colors with detailed costumes, including feathers in hats and striped sleeves, highlighting a moment of social interaction and strategy.\" width=\"2017\" height=\"1444\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi), <em>The Cardsharps<\/em>, c. 1595, oil on canvas, 94.2 x 130.9 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/kimbellart.org\/collection\/ap-198706\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Kimbell Art Museum<\/a>, Texas, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Caravaggio_-_The_Cardsharps_(1596-97)_Kimbell_Art_Museum.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>These followers were undoubtedly struck by Caravaggio\u2019s ability to enliven such subjects with a dignity not necessarily befitting the lowly actions depicted. In\u00a0<em>The Cardsharps<\/em>, for instance, a fresh-faced boy is tricked by two professional cheats. The viewer is privy to the deception\u2014the figure at the far right of the composition exposes the stolen cards behind his back\u2014and we are brought close to the ruse and the precariously balanced backgammon board, teetering on the edge of an ornate, brocade-covered table. In versions of the theme by Boulogne, Manfredi, or Nicholas Tournier, earthy scenes of revelry might replace cardplaying.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1799px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/pl1_372768_fnt_tr_t04v.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/pl1_372768_fnt_tr_t04v.jpg\" alt=\"Pietro Paolini, Allegory of the Five Senses painting depicting a group of people gathered around a table, with one person playing a guitar and another drinking from a vessel. The composition uses strong chiaroscuro contrasts, highlighting figures' faces and hands while much of the background remains in shadow, emphasizing a lively, intimate scene.\" width=\"1799\" height=\"1271\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pietro Paolini, <em>Allegory of the Five Senses<\/em>, c. 1630, oil on canvas, 125.1 x 173 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/art.thewalters.org\/detail\/15244\/allegory-of-the-five-senses\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Walters Art Museum<\/a>, Baltimore, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pietro_Paolini_-_Allegory_of_the_Five_Senses_-_Walters_372768.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>These sometimes-elaborate compositions do not seek to reproduce the quiet intimacy of Caravaggio\u2019s paintings, but they succeed in transposing the artist\u2019s tenebristic backgrounds and embolden the disenfranchised populations they depict. In Pietro Paolini\u2019s rendering of drinkers and revelers in his\u00a0<em>Allegory of the Senses<\/em>, he superimposes the dark, somber tonality of Caravaggio\u2019s later religious paintings on the themes Caravaggio painted in his youth. The combination is striking: the levity of gambling or musical merriment is sobered by the reddish ground and stronger chiaroscuro common in the second half of Caravaggio\u2019s career, when he had long since left such subjects behind.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"selective-adoptions\">Selective adoptions<\/h3>\n<p>Since followers of Caravaggio had no formal indoctrination by the master himself (unlike painters in the school of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/annibale-carracci-christ-appearing-to-saint-peter-on-the-appian-way\/\">Carracci<\/a>, for instance), they were free to take from Caravaggio whatever aspects of the painter\u2019s style and method they were most interested in. Painters like Cecco del Caravaggio, Orazio Gentileschi and his daughter,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gentileschi-judith-slaying-holofernes\/\">Artemisia Gentileschi<\/a>, or Grammatica, who knew Caravaggio personally, did have the benefit of direct contact with the source of their inspiration, but their work retains a character all its own.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1470px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/Saint-Francis-supported-by-an-Angel.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Saint-Francis-supported-by-an-Angel.jpg\" alt=\"Orazio Gentileschi, Saint Francis in Ecstasy painting depicting a robed figure seated with a large angelic figure standing behind, wings spread wide. The painting features muted earth tones with detailed textures on clothing and feathers.\" width=\"1470\" height=\"1882\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Orazio Gentileschi, <em>Saint Francis in Ecstasy<\/em>, c. 1607 and 1612\u201313, oil on canvas, 126 x 98 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.museodelprado.es\/en\/the-collection\/art-work\/saint-francis-supported-by-an-angel\/691d8204-2581-4d40-8a08-4464f15fa03b\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Museo del Prado<\/a>, Madrid, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Orazio_Gentileschi_-_St_Francis_Supported_by_an_Angel_-_WGA8583.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The Gentileschi\u2014both father and daughter\u2014produced more lyrical paintings than did Caravaggio. Incorporating the cold blues, yellows, and violets that were notably absent from Caravaggio\u2019s palette, their paintings, particularly those of Orazio, often reflected local influences. Nevertheless\u2014and crucial to the discussion of Caravaggism in Europe\u2014their work reveals an absorption not only of Caravaggio\u2019s tenebrism, but of his approach to religious\u00a0iconography.<\/p>\n<p>In his depictions of\u00a0<em>St. Francis in Ecstasy<\/em>, Orazio favors the intimate saint-angel relationship first struck by Caravaggio in his Hartford\u00a0<em>St. Francis<\/em>. In her gory\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gentileschi-judith-slaying-holofernes\/\"><em>Judith Beheading Holofernes<\/em><\/a>, Artemisia Gentileschi further highlights the violent struggle of decapitation emphasized in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/2560px-Judith_Beheading_Holofernes_-_Caravaggio.jpeg\">Caravaggio\u2019s painting of 1599<\/a>. In both cases, the mixed horror and conviction apparent in Judith\u2019s face humanize her violent yet selfless act, all while blood drips mercilessly into the viewer\u2019s space.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"a-new-kind-of-religious-imagery\">A new kind of religious imagery<\/h3>\n<p>Other Caravaggisti were also influenced by Caravaggio\u2019s humanizing depictions of devotional subjects. In their representations of the<em>\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/Der_ungla%CC%88ubige_Thomas_-_Michelangelo_Merisi_named_Caravaggio.jpeg\">Doubting Thomas<\/a><\/em>, for instance, Ter Brugghen, Honthorst, and Mattias Stomer reproduced the extraordinary half-length figures in semi-circular groupings and visceral depiction of Thomas\u2019s finger in Christ\u2019s side from Caravaggio\u2019s c. 1602 painting for Benedetto Giustiniani. In fact, these Northern artists were likely responsible for the sudden surge in popularity of\u00a0<em>Doubting Thomas<\/em>\u00a0imagery in the Netherlandish city of Utrecht during the first half of the 17th century.<\/p>\n<p>Similarly, Jusepe de Ribera is credited with the spread of the Caravaggesque style to Spain, where it in turn may have influenced the work of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/velazquez-the-waterseller-of-seville\/\">Diego Vel\u00e1zquez<\/a>.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/jusepe-de-ribera-the-martyrdom-of-saint-philip\/\">Ribera\u2019s paintings<\/a>\u00a0of half-length saints, such as the\u00a0<em>St. Jerome<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0<em>Sts. Peter and Paul<\/em>, and large-scale devotional paintings such as the\u00a0<em>Lamentation over the Dead Christ<\/em>\u00a0reflect his years spent in Rome and Naples, where the art of Caravaggio fostered Ribera\u2019s tenebrism and intimate portrayal of hallowed religious subjects.<\/p>\n<p>In 1612, two years after Caravaggio\u2019s death, a young Ribera asked his Roman landlord for permission to cut a hole in his roof. Allowing natural light to illuminate models in Ribera\u2019s studio, this makeshift skylight stands as unusual evidence of the lengths Caravaggisti might go to achieve the first-hand observation, dramatic lighting, and incisive realism that characterized this new approach to art.<\/p>\n<p>This content was first developed for Oxford Art Online and appears courtesy of Oxford University Press.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1432px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/pl1_37278_fnt_tr_t03v.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/pl1_37278_fnt_tr_t03v.jpg\" alt=\"Jusepe de Ribera, St Paul the Hermit painting depicting an emaciated, shirtless man with hands clasped in prayer, illuminated by a beam of light from the upper right. The dark background contrasts with the man's pale skin, and a skull rests on a table beside him.\" width=\"1432\" height=\"1800\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Jusepe de Ribera, <em>St. Paul the Hermit<\/em>, c. 1638, oil on canvas,132.7 x 106.7 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/art.thewalters.org\/detail\/37037\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Walters Art Museum<\/a>, Baltimore, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Jusepe_de_Ribera_-_Saint_Paul_the_Hermit_-_Walters_37278.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 id=\"artemisia-gentileschi-judith-slaying-holofernes\">Artemisia Gentileschi,\u00a0<em>Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em><\/h2>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-7\" title=\"Gentileschi, Judith and Holofernes\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/BHFuLS9NW6s?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>\u201cLord God, to whom all strength belongs, prosper what my hands are now to do for the greater glory of Jerusalem; for now is the time to recover your heritage and to further my plans to crush the enemies arrayed against us.\u201d Judith\u2019s prayer before beheading Holofernes (Judith 13:4-5)<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2133px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Zucker-image-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Zucker-image-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Artemisia Gentileschi's Judith Slaying Holofernes shows Judith and her maidservant in the middle of decapitating Holofernes. The painting has deep rich colors and a strong contrast of light and shadow.\" width=\"2133\" height=\"2560\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Artemisia Gentileschi, <em>Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em>, 1620\u201321, oil on canvas, 162.5 x 199 cm (Uffizi Gallery, Florence; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nBdeU7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"the-story-of-judith\">The story of Judith<\/h3>\n<p>Rivulets of blood run down the white sheets, as Judith, a pious young widow from the Jewish city of Bethulia, beheads Holofernes, general of the Assyrian army that had besieged her city. Moved by the plight of her people and filled with trust in God, Judith took matters into her own hands. She coiffed her hair, donned her finest garments and entered the enemy camp under the pretense of bringing Holofernes\u00a0information that would ensure his victory. Struck by her beauty, he\u00a0invited her to dine, planning later to seduce her. As the biblical text recounts, \u201cHolofernes was so enchanted with her that he drank far more wine than he had drunk on any other day in his life\u201d (Judith 12:20).\u00a0Judith saw her opportunity; with a prayer on her lips and a sword in her hand, she saved her people from destruction.<\/p>\n<p>The story of Judith and Holofernes is recounted in the Book of Judith, a 2nd century text deemed apocryphal by the Jewish and Protestant traditions, but included in Catholic editions of the Bible. Like the story of David and Goliath, it was a popular subject of art in the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/primer-italian-renaissance-art\/\">Renaissance<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-baroque-art\/\">Baroque<\/a>\u00a0periods.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"artemisia-and-caravaggio\">Artemisia and Caravaggio<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Judith-Holofernes-comp-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Judith-Holofernes-comp-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Side by side comparison of two paintings each showing two women decapitating the head of a large man.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1000\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Left: Caravaggio, <em>Judith Beheading Holofernes<\/em>, 1598\u201399, oil on canvas, 145 x 195 cm (Palazzo Barberini, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Judith_Beheading_Holofernes_-_Caravaggio.jpg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Architas<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>); right: Judith, Abra, and Holofernes (detail), Artemisia Gentileschi,\u00a0<em>Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em>, 1620\u201321, oil on canvas, 162.5 x 199 cm (Uffizi Gallery, Florence; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nBdeU7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>This particular painting, executed by Artemisia Gentileschi in Florence and now in the Uffizi, is one of the bloodiest and most vivid depictions of the scene, surpassing the version by\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/caravaggio-and-caravaggisti-in-17th-century-europe\/\">Caravaggio<\/a>, arch-realist of Baroque Rome, in its immediacy and shocking realism. Artemisia was certainly familiar with Caravaggio\u2019s painting of the subject; her father Orazio, who was responsible for her artistic training, was Caravaggio\u2019s friend and artistic follower. Caravaggio\u2019s painting inspired, and perhaps even challenged, the young Artemisia.<\/p>\n<p>A comparison between the two reveals not only her debt to the older artist, but also a series of pointed modifications that heighten the intensity of the physical struggle, the quantity of blood spilled, and the physical and psychological strength of Judith and her maidservant, Abra. In Artemisia\u2019s painting, the bloody sheets are in the immediate foreground, close to the viewer\u2019s space. Holofernes\u2019s muscular body projects dynamically into the depicted space as bold areas of light and dark draw attention to his powerful limbs.<\/p>\n<p>And, most importantly, whereas Caravaggio pairs his delicate Judith with a haggard attendant who merely looks on, her eyes wide with disbelief, Artemisia depicts two strong, young women working in unison, their sleeves rolled up, their gazes focused, their grips firm. Caravaggio\u2019s Judith gracefully recoils from her gruesome task; Artemisia\u2019s Judith does not flinch. Instead, she braces herself on the bed, as she presses Holofernes\u2019s head down with one hand and pulls a large sword through his neck with the other. The creases at her wrists clearly show the physical strength required. Holofernes struggles in vain, the thrust of his arms countered by the more forceful movement of Abra, Judith\u2019s accomplice in this grisly act.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2450px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Gentileschi-comp.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Gentileschi-comp.jpg\" alt=\"Side by side comparison of two paintings each showing two women decapitating the head of a large man.\" width=\"2450\" height=\"1500\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Left: Artemisia Gentileschi, <em>Judith Beheading Holofernes<\/em>, 1611\u201312, oil on canvas, 159 x 126 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/artsandculture.google.com\/asset\/judith-and-holofernes-artemisia-gentileschi\/EAHU7mkaSlAX2A?hl=en\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Museo Nazionale di Capodimonte<\/a>, Naples, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Artemisia_Gentileschi_-_Judith_Beheading_Holofernes_-_WGA8563.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>); right: Artemisia Gentileschi,\u00a0<em>Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em>, 1620\u201321, oil on canvas, 162.5 x 199 cm (Uffizi Gallery, Florence; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nBdeU7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"a-composition-perfected\">A\u00a0composition perfected<\/h3>\n<p>The Uffizi\u00a0<em>Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em>\u00a0is Artemisia\u2019s second telling of this narrative. The first, executed in Rome and now in the Capodimonte Museum in Naples, introduced the dynamic composition centered on the thrust and counter thrust of extended limbs. Artemisia refined the composition in the second (Uffizi) version. Small but significant adjustments reveal her growth in technical skill, her awareness of the local Florentine taste for sumptuous fabrics, and her thoughtful consideration of the expressive potential of each detail. Awkward passages of anatomy and proportion (such as Holofernes\u2019 head) have been corrected, the colors and textures of the fabrics are now richer (notice the red velvet draped over Holofernes and the golden damask of Artemisia\u2019s Judith\u2019s dress), and Judith\u2019s hair is more elaborately curled, in keeping with the biblical text\u2019s emphasis on her self-adornment.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 867px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Detail-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Detail-1.jpg\" alt=\"Detail image of painting showing a head being removed from a body with the figure's eyes wide open in fear and blood spurting from the neck.\" width=\"867\" height=\"1012\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Beheading (detail), Artemisia Gentileschi, <em>Judith Slaying Holofernes,<\/em> 1620\u201321, oil on canvas, 162.5 x 199 cm (Uffizi Gallery, Florence; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nBdeU7\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Most striking, however, is the portrayal of the blood. The Capodimonte version omits the blood that violently spurts from the neck of Holofernes. Like Caravaggio\u2019s, the Uffizi painting places particular emphasis on this detail, and does so with even greater realism.<\/p>\n<p>Framed by Judith\u2019s arms, jets of blood now arc and descend in droplets that bespeckle her arms and dress. The pattern described by the spurting blood suggests Artemisia may have been familiar with her friend\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/galileo-galilei\/\">Galileo Galilei<\/a>\u2019s research on parabolic trajectories. Artemisia also modified the sword in the Uffizi version. The sword, here longer and held more vertically, prominently marks the painting\u2019s central axis which extends from Abra\u2019s arm to the blood that runs down the edge of the bed. This powerful visual axis reinforces the strength of the women and the violence of the deed. It is no accident that Judith\u2019s sword-clenching fist is at the very center of the composition; imbued with divine strength, this widow\u2019s hand is now the hand of God protecting the Israelites from their enemies.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"judithartemisias-alter-ego\">Judith\u2014Artemisia\u2019s alter ego?<\/h3>\n<p>Artemisia\u2019s unique portrayal of Judith and Abra has prompted scholars to argue that Artemisia identified with the protagonist of the story in a way her male counterparts did not. This association stems not only from their shared gender, but also from Artemisia\u2019s own traumatic experience. Artemisia was raped at the age of 17 by the artist Agostino Tassi, a close friend of her father. When Tassi failed to marry her, as the social dictates of the time demanded, her father sought recourse in court.\u00a0During the trial, Artemisia describes her struggle against Tassi and her attempt to attack him with a knife. She also recalls the sense of betrayal she felt\u00a0when she realized\u00a0her female chaperone\u00a0had colluded with Tassi and arranged to leave the two alone.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 881px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Detail-2.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Detail-2.jpg\" alt=\"Close-up photograph of a painted arm wearing an ornate gold bracelet with three blue oval gemstones set in intricate gold frames.\" width=\"881\" height=\"899\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Bracelet (detail), Artemisia Gentileschi, <em>Judith Slaying Holofernes,<\/em> 1620\u201321, oil on canvas, 162.5 x 199 cm (Uffizi Gallery, Florence; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nBaHBv\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The first version of\u00a0<em>Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em>\u00a0dates to this difficult period in the artist\u2019s life.\u00a0Especially significant is Artemisia\u2019s portrayal of Abra as youthful, strong and fully engaged in the assisting Judith, in striking contrast to the chaperone who purposefully abandoned Artemisia in her hour of need. In the Uffizi painting Artemisia adds a small detail that supports her identification with Judith. \u00a0One of the cameos on Judith\u2019s bracelet appears to depict Artemis, the ancient goddess of both chastity and the hunt.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"juditha-symbol-of-the-church-militant\">Judith\u2014a symbol of the church militant<\/h3>\n<p>While the story of Judith may have held personal significance for Artemisia,\u00a0it is important to note its broader cultural valence. The story of Judith was especially popular in the Baroque period, not only in the visual arts but also in literature, theater, and music. An example of the victory of virtue over vice, of God\u2019s protection of his chosen people from their enemies, Judith was also seen as an Old Testament\u00a0antetype\u00a0of the Virgin Mary and, by extension, as a symbol of the Church. This association partly explains the increase in portrayals of Judith in late 16th through the 17th centuries, when the Catholic Church was engaged in conflicts with both the Protestants and the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-rise-of-the-ottoman-empire\/\">Ottoman Turks<\/a>, whose\u00a0eastern\u00a0origins facilitated their identification with Holofernes. Artemisia and her contemporaries capitalized on this popularity, frequently portraying not only the moment of the beheading itself, but also\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artemisia-gentileschi-judith-and-her-maidservant-with-the-head-of-holofernes\/\">the moment right after it<\/a>, when Judith and her maidservant escape from the enemy camp. The dramatic potential of the story made it as ideal subject for the powerful theatricality of Baroque art.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"banished\">Banished<\/h3>\n<p>The Uffizi\u00a0<em>Judith<\/em>\u00a0was likely either commissioned by or gifted to the Medici, Florence\u2019s ruling family, the same family that commissioned Donatello\u2019s famous bronze sculpture of\u00a0<em>Judith and Holofernes<\/em>\u00a0in the late 15th century.<\/p>\n<p>Artemisia Gentileschi was clearly proud of the Uffizi\u00a0<em>Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em>, signing it in the lower right corner. In it she demonstrated her mastery of the language of Baroque realism, exploiting its emphasis on proximity to the picture plane, strong\u00a0chiaroscuro, and realistic details to create an especially potent depiction of the story\u2019s dramatic climax.<\/p>\n<p>The bold immediacy of this finely-tuned composition succeeded all too well, for in the late 18th century, disgusted by the horror of the scene, the Medici duchess banished this painting\u00a0to a dark corner of the Uffizi, where it remained until the late twentieth century. To this day, it strikes its viewers with both revulsion and awe at the skill of the artist who so convincingly transformed paint into blood.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-4\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n<p>17<sup>th<\/sup> century Italian Baroque art was profoundly shaped by the Counter-Reformation and the Catholic Church\u2019s response to the Protestant Reformation. Artists, especially those serving the Church, were required to follow the new art-making rules set forth by the Council of Trent. In Italy and in other Catholic territories, art associated with the church now had to teach, to serve as positive propaganda, and to follow the rules of censorship. The emerging Baroque period introduced a style that was full of drama, theatricality, emotion, movement, and viewer engagement.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-4\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\n<p>The following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\n<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\n<li>Introduction to Baroque Architecture<\/li>\n<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\n<li>Conclusion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Dr. Lauren Kilroy-Ewbank and Dr. Heather Graham, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/mannerism-introduction\/\">Mannerism, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, September 1, 2020.<\/li>\n<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/el-greco\/\">El Greco<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/el-greco-adoration-of-the-shepherds\/\">El Greco,\u00a0<em>Adoration of the Shepherds<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, November 25, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Esperan\u00e7a Camara, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-baroque-art\/\">Baroque art, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, June 9, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/how-to-recognize-baroque-art\/\">How to recognize Baroque art<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, May 10, 2016.<\/li>\n<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/francesco-borromini\/\">Francesco Borromini<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/borromini-san-carlo-alle-quattro-fontane\/\">Francesco Borromini, San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, November 18, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/gian-lorenzo-bernini\/\">Gian Lorenzo Bernini<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bernini-st-peters-square-2\/\">Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Saint Peter\u2019s Square<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, November 18, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bernini-baldacchino\/\">Gian Lorenzo Bernini, Baldacchino, Saint Peter\u2019s<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, July 19, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Esperan\u00e7a Camara, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-last-judgment\/\">Michelangelo,\u00a0<em>Last Judgment<\/em>, Sistine Chapel<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, November 28, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/caravaggio\/\">Caravaggio<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/caravaggio-calling-of-st-matthew\/\">Caravaggio,\u00a0<em>Calling of Saint Matthew<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, November 18, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Oxford University Press and Dr. Erin Benay, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/caravaggio-and-caravaggisti-in-17th-century-europe\/\">Caravaggio and Caravaggisti in 17th-century Europe<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, July 12, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Esperan\u00e7a Camara, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gentileschi-judith-slaying-holofernes\/\">Artemisia Gentileschi,\u00a0<em>Judith Slaying Holofernes<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, July 19, 2015.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"menu_order":6,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-3003","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/3003","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"version-history":[{"count":8,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/3003\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3532,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/3003\/revisions\/3532"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/3003\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=3003"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=3003"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=3003"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=3003"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}