{"id":2922,"date":"2026-06-17T19:12:45","date_gmt":"2026-06-17T19:12:45","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/chapter\/high-renaissance-italy\/"},"modified":"2026-07-27T17:50:01","modified_gmt":"2026-07-27T17:50:01","slug":"high-renaissance-italy","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/chapter\/high-renaissance-italy\/","title":{"raw":"High Renaissance, Italy","rendered":"High Renaissance, Italy"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-2\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\r\nThe High Renaissance produced some of the most famous names in art history: Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Such artists of the High Renaissance in Italy represent the epitome of Renaissance philosophy and artistic aesthetic. The term \"High Renaissance\" is associated with the period of c. 1490-1520 and only in Italy. During this period, Rome strengthened as an artistic center with the Pope and the Vatican becoming one of the most prominent patrons of art and architecture in all Europe.\r\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-2\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Leonardo da Vinci,\u00a0<em>Last Supper,\u00a0<\/em>c. 1495-1498, oil and tempera on plaster<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>New Saint Peter's<\/em>, Vatican, Rome<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Michelangelo Buonarroti,\u00a0<em>David,<\/em>\u00a01501-1504, marble<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Michelangelo Buonarroti,\u00a0<em>Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel,<\/em>\u00a0Vatican City, Rome, 1508-1512, fresco<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Raphael Sanzio,\u00a0<em>Philosophy (School of Athens)<\/em>, Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican City, Rome, Italy, 1509-1511, fresco<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Titian Vecellio,\u00a0<em>Venus of Urbino,\u00a0<\/em>1536-1538, oil on canvas<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 id=\"term-list-2\">Term List<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>High Renaissance<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Humanism<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Neo-Platonism<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Linear perspective<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sfumato<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Martyria<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Basilica<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Saint Peter<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Central Plan<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Contrapposto<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Chiaroscuro<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Disegno<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Colorito<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2 id=\"toward-the-high-renaissance-an-introduction\">Toward the High Renaissance, an introduction<\/h2>\r\nWhen you think of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/primer-italian-renaissance-art\/\">Renaissance<\/a>, the names that come to mind are probably the artists of this period (the High Renaissance):\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/about-leonardo\/\">Leonardo<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/europe-1300-1800\/italy-16th-century\/michelangelo\/\">Michelangelo<\/a>, for instance. And perhaps when you think of the greatest work of art in the western world,\u00a0Michelangelo\u2019s\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-ceiling-of-the-sistine-chapel\/\">Sistine Ceiling<\/a>\u00a0might come to mind. This is a period of big, ambitious projects.\r\n<h3 id=\"how-is-the-high-renaissance-different-from-the-early-renaissance\">How is the High Renaissance\u00a0different from the Early Renaissance?<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"804\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/standard_Fra_Filippo_Lippi_-_Madonna_and_Child_with_two_Angels_-_Uffizi.jpeg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/standard_Fra_Filippo_Lippi_-_Madonna_and_Child_with_two_Angels_-_Uffizi.jpeg\" alt=\"A Renaissance-style painting depicting a woman in a dark blue dress with a white veil holding a baby, accompanied by a young child with wings, likely representing an angel. The background features rocky cliffs and a cloudy sky, with intricate details in clothing textures and a small ornate box in the foreground.\" width=\"804\" height=\"1200\" \/><\/a> Fra Filippo Lippi, <em>Madonna and Child with Two Angels<\/em>, c. 1460\u201365, tempera on panel, 95 x 63.5 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.uffizi.it\/en\/artworks\/lippi-madonna-and-child-with-two-angels\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAs the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/humanism-renaissance-italy\/\">Humanism<\/a>\u00a0of the Early Renaissance develops, a problem arises. Have a look at Fra Filippo Lippi\u2019s\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/lippi-madonna-and-child-with-two-angels\/\"><em>Madonna and Child with Angels<\/em><\/a>. We see\u00a0a Madonna and Christ Child that have\u00a0become so real\u2014the figures appear so human\u2014that in some ways we can hardly tell that these are divine figures (except perhaps for the faint outline\u00a0of a halo, and Mary\u2019s sorrowful expression and hands clasped in prayer). On the other hand,\u00a0in the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-new-pictorial-language-the-image-in-early-medieval-art\/\">Middle Ages<\/a>, the need to create transcendent\u00a0spiritual figures,\u00a0meant a\u00a0move toward abstraction\u2014toward flatness and elongation.\r\n\r\nIn the Early Renaissance then, a tension arises. To create spiritual figures, your image can\u2019t look very real, and if you want your image to appear real, then you sacrifice some spirituality. In the late 15th century though, Leonardo da Vinci creates figures who are physical and real (just as real as Lippi\u2019s or\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/masaccio-virgin-and-child-enthroned\/\">Masaccio\u2019s<\/a>\u00a0figures), and yet they have an undeniable and intense spirituality. We could say that Leonardo unites the real and spiritual, or soul and substance.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2157\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/VerrocchioBaptismFull-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/VerrocchioBaptismFull-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"A religious painting depicting the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist in a natural landscape with a river and rocky terrain. Key elements include halos around figures' heads, a dove with radiant light above symbolizing the Holy Spirit, and two kneeling figures observing the scene.\" width=\"2157\" height=\"2560\" \/><\/a> Andrea del Verrocchio (with Leonardo), <em>Baptism of Christ<\/em>, 1470\u201375, oil and tempera on panel, 180 x 152 cm (Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nJ5Wei\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe best way to see this\u00a0is in this painting by\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/verrocchio-david-with-the-head-of-goliath\/\">Verrocchio<\/a>\u2014an important Early Renaissance artist who Leonardo was apprenticed to when he was young. Verrocchio asked Leonardo to paint one of the angels in his painting of the\u00a0<em>Baptism of Christ<\/em>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"811\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/VerrocchioBaptismAngels.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/image14.jpeg\" alt=\"Detail, Andrea del Verrocchio (with Leonardo), Baptism of Christ depicting two haloed figures kneeling on a stone surface, dressed in flowing blue and red robes. The scene includes detailed textures of fabric and stone, with warm earth tones in the background and a white cloth held by one figure, suggesting a biblical or saintly context.\" width=\"811\" height=\"1376\" \/><\/a> Detail, Andrea del Verrocchio (with Leonardo), <em>Baptism of Christ,<\/em> 1470\u201375, oil and tempera on panel, 180 x 152 cm (Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nHYwvg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nCan you tell which angel is Leonardo\u2019s? One angel should look more like a boy\u2014that\u2019s the Early Renaissance angel (the one painted by Verrocchio) and the other angel should look truly divine, sent by God from heaven (that\u2019s Leonardo\u2019s angel).\r\n\r\nThe angel on the left is Leonardo\u2019s.\r\n\r\nLeonardo\u2019s angel is ideally beautiful and moves in a graceful and complex way, twisting her upper body to the left but raising her head up and to the right. Figures that move elegantly and that are ideally beautiful are typical of the High Renaissance.\r\n<h2 id=\"leonardo-da-vinci-last-supper\">Leonardo da Vinci,\u00a0<em>Last Supper<\/em><\/h2>\r\n\u201cLeonardo imagined, and has succeeded in expressing, the desire that has entered the minds of the apostles to know who is betraying their Master. So in the face of each one may be seen love, fear, indignation, or grief at not being able to understand the meaning of Christ; and this excites no less astonishment than the obstinate hatred and treachery to be seen in Judas.\u201d Giorgio Vasari,\u00a0<em>Lives of the Artists<\/em>, 1568; translated by George Bull\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=XCg7o4onjxs\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/52083520739_1e5b3aa6d6_6k-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/52083520739_1e5b3aa6d6_6k-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper depicting a long dining table with Jesus Christ at the center surrounded by his twelve apostles during the Last Supper. The artwork features detailed expressions, a muted color palette, and architectural elements like arched windows and a coffered ceiling.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1534\" \/><\/a> Leonardo da Vinci, <em>Last Supper<\/em>, oil, tempera, fresco, 1495\u201398 (Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nmrE9T\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"subject\">Subject<\/h3>\r\nThe subject of the\u00a0<em>Last Supper<\/em>\u00a0is\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/standard-scenes-from-the-life-of-christ-in-art\/\">Christ\u2019s<\/a>\u00a0final meal with his apostles before Judas identifies Christ to the authorities who arrest him. The Last Supper (a Passover\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-golden-haggadah\/\">Seder<\/a>) is remembered for two events:\r\n\r\nChrist says to his apostles, \u201cOne of you will betray me,\u201d and the apostles react, each according to his own personality. Referring to the Gospels, Leonardo depicts Philip asking, \u201cLord, is it I?\u201d Christ replies, \u201cHe that dippeth his hand with me in the dish, the same shall betray me\u201d (Matthew 26). We see Christ and Judas simultaneously reaching toward a plate that lies between them, even as Judas defensively backs away.\r\n\r\nLeonardo also simultaneously depicts Christ blessing the bread and saying to the apostles, \u201cTake, eat; this is my body\u201d and blessing the wine and saying \u201cDrink from it all of you; for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for the forgiveness of sins\u201d (Matthew 26). These words are the founding moment of the sacrament of the Eucharist (the miraculous transformation of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ).\r\n<h3 id=\"apostles-identified\">Apostles identified<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/DetailLeonardoLastSupper-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/DetailLeonardoLastSupper-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Detail of da Vinci's Last Supper fresco depicting a group of men seated at a long table, identified by labels as Andrew, Judas, Peter, John, Christ, and Thomas. The scene captures a significant biblical moment with detailed expressions, varied postures, and a background featuring windows showing a landscape.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1669\" \/><\/a> Detail, Leonardo da Vinci, <em>Last Supper<\/em>, oil, tempera, fresco, 1495\u201398 (Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nmqqyA\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nLeonardo\u2019s\u00a0<em>Last Supper<\/em>\u00a0is dense with symbolic references. Attributes identify each apostle. For example, Judas Iscariot is recognized both as he reaches toward a plate beside Christ (Matthew 26) and because he clutches a purse containing his reward for identifying Christ to the authorities the following day. Peter, who sits beside Judas, holds a knife in his right hand, foreshadowing that Peter will sever the ear of a soldier as he attempts to protect Christ from arrest.\r\n<h3 id=\"suggestions-of-the-heavenly\">Suggestions of the heavenly<\/h3>\r\nThe balanced composition is anchored by an equilateral triangle formed by Christ\u2019s body. He sits below an arching pediment that, if completed, traces a circle. These ideal geometric forms refer to the renaissance interest in Neo-Platonism (an element of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/humanism-renaissance-italy\/\">humanist revival<\/a>\u00a0that reconciles aspects of Greek philosophy with Christian theology).\u00a0In his allegory, \u201cThe Cave,\u201d the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-greece-an-introduction\/\">Ancient Greek<\/a>\u00a0philosopher Plato emphasized the imperfection of the earthly realm. Geometry, used by the Greeks to express heavenly perfection, has been used by Leonardo to celebrate Christ as the embodiment of heaven on earth.\r\n\r\nLeonardo rendered a verdant landscape beyond the windows. Often interpreted as paradise, it has been suggested that this heavenly sanctuary can only be reached through Christ.\r\n\r\nThe twelve apostles are arranged as four groups of three and there are also three windows. The number three is often a reference to the Holy Trinity in Catholic art. In contrast, the number four is important in the classical tradition (e.g. Plato\u2019s four virtues).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2244\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/52083283521_3535f086b9_4k.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/52083283521_3535f086b9_4k.jpg\" alt=\"Christ (detail), Leonardo da Vinci, Last Supper. The central figure wears a red and blue robe, with bread and cups placed on the table, set against a backdrop of windows showing a distant landscape.\" width=\"2244\" height=\"2303\" \/><\/a> Christ (detail), Leonardo da Vinci, <em>Last Supper,<\/em> oil, tempera, fresco, 1495\u201398 (Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nmqrCV\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"the-last-supper-in-the-early-renaissance\">The Last Supper in the early Renaissance<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/51179579781_8bbf1fdf66_5k-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/51179579781_8bbf1fdf66_5k-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Andrea del Castagno, The Last Supper, 1447, a large Renaissance fresco depicting the Last Supper with Jesus and twelve apostles seated at a long table. The fresco features detailed architectural elements, vibrant colors, and expressive figures, highlighting key moments of the biblical scene.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1451\" \/><\/a> Andrea del Castagno, <em>The Last Supper<\/em>, 1447, fresco, 453 x 975 cm (refectory of the convent of Sant\u2019Apollonia, now the Museo di Cenacolo di Sant\u2019Apollonia, Florence; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2kYyHZX\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAndrea del Castagno\u2019s\u00a0<em>Last Supper<\/em>\u00a0is typical of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/florence-in-the-early-renaissance\/\">early Renaissance<\/a>. The use of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/linear-perspective-brunelleschis-experiment\/\">linear perspective<\/a>\u00a0in combination with ornate forms such as the sphinxes on the ends of the bench and the marble paneling tend to detract from the spirituality of the event. In contrast, Leonardo simplified the architecture, eliminating unnecessary and distracting details so that the architecture can instead amplify the spirituality. The window and arching pediment even suggest a halo. \u00a0By crowding all of the figures together, Leonardo uses the table as a barrier to separate the spiritual realm from the viewer\u2019s earthly world. Paradoxically, Leonardo\u2019s emphasis on spirituality results in a painting that is more naturalistic than Castagno\u2019s.\r\n<h2 id=\"leonardo-da-vinci-mona-lisa\">Leonardo da Vinci,\u00a0<em>Mona Lisa<\/em><\/h2>\r\nAn inventor and key creator of High Renaissance style, Leonardo da Vinci\u2019s skill in evoking character came from a masterful handling of space and chiaroscuro.\r\n<h3 id=\"portraits-were-once-rare\">Portraits were once rare<\/h3>\r\nWe live in a culture that is so saturated with images, it may be difficult to imagine a time when only the wealthiest people had their likeness captured. The wealthy merchants of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/florence-in-the-early-renaissance\/\">renaissance Florence<\/a>\u00a0could\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/types-of-renaissance-patronage\/\">commission<\/a>\u00a0a portrait, but even they would likely only have a single portrait painted during their lifetime. A portrait was about more than likeness, it spoke to status and position. In addition, portraits generally took a long time to paint, and the subject would commonly have to sit for hours or days, while the artist captured their likeness.\r\n\r\nThe\u00a0<em>Mona Lisa<\/em>\u00a0was originally this type of portrait, but over time its meaning has shifted and it has become an icon of the Renaissance\u2014perhaps\u00a0the most recognized painting in the world. The\u00a0<em>Mona Lisa<\/em>\u00a0is a likely a portrait of the wife of a Florentine merchant. For some reason however, the portrait was never delivered to its patron, and Leonardo kept it with him when he went to work for\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/french-mannerism-fontainebleau\/\">Francis I<\/a>, the King of France.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-most-recognized-painting-in-the-world\">The most recognized painting in the world<\/h3>\r\n&nbsp;\r\n\r\n[embed]https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=B06PK4yZwvY&amp;t=5s[\/embed]\r\n<h2 id=\"introducing-high-renaissance-architecture\">Introducing High Renaissance Architecture<\/h2>\r\nAs with the geometry used by da Vinci in pieces like the <em>Last Supper<\/em>, Renaissance architects also returned to Ancient Greek ideas about geometry \u201cto express heavenly perfection.\u201d Architects like Bramante in the <em>Tempietto<\/em> and the Renaissance rebuilding of St. Peter\u2019s Basilica in Rome are reflections of both Ancient Greek concepts of geometry and the philosophy of Neo-Platonism.\r\n<h2 id=\"donato-bramante-tempietto-rome\">Donato Bramante, Tempietto, Rome<\/h2>\r\nAn architect, painter, and engineer, Donato Bramante\u2019s High Renaissance designs had an enduring influence on architecture in the 16th century.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=QXIXA4_5ehw\r\n<h2 id=\"saint-peters-basilica\">Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica<\/h2>\r\nThe greatest minds of the High Renaissance worked on this vast church. Construction took more than a century.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/52293497603_1c1945e2ad_5k-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/52293497603_1c1945e2ad_5k-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph of a wide street leading to St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City, showcasing Renaissance architecture and a large dome under a cloudy sky. The street is lined with historic buildings, street lamps, and pedestrians, highlighting a calm urban scene.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1440\" \/><\/a> Numerous architects, Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City, begun 1506, completed 1626 (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nEZQXD\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nArchitects and designers included: Donato Bramante (whose design won Julius II\u2019s competition); Antonio da Sangallo, a student of Bramante (the Pauline Chapel); Fra Giocondo (strengthening of the foundation); Raphael and Fra Giocondo (whose redesigned building plan was not executed); Michelangelo (design of the dome, crossing, and exterior excluding the nave and facade); Giacomo della Porta (design of the cupola); Carlo Maderno (extension of Michelangelo\u2019s plan, adding a nave and grand facade); Gian Lorenzo Bernini (addition of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bernini-st-peters-square-2\/\">piazza<\/a>, the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bernini-cathedra-petri-chair-of-st-peter\/\">Cathedra Petri<\/a>, and the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bernini-baldacchino\/\">Baldacchino<\/a>)\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1280\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/1280px-Basilica_di_San_Pietro_1450.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/1280px-Basilica_di_San_Pietro_1450.jpg\" alt=\"A detailed black-and-white architectural drawing depicts Old Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome around the year 1450. The illustration highlights the basilica's large rectangular layout, central nave, multiple domes, bell tower, and surrounding structures, providing historical context of the site's design and scale.\" width=\"1280\" height=\"849\" \/><\/a> H.W. Brewer, Drawing of Old Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica as it appeared between 1475 and 1483, 1891[\/caption]\r\n\r\nPope Julius II commissioned Bramante to build a new basilica\u2014this involved demolishing the Old St Peter\u2019s Basilica that had been erected by Constantine in the 4th century. This ancient church was in disrepair. But tearing it down was a bold maneuver that gives us a sense of the enormous ambition of Pope Julius II, both for the papacy as well as for himself.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/st-peters-arch-plans-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/st-peters-arch-plans-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Three black and white architectural floor plans of churches or cathedrals are shown side by side, each with distinct layouts featuring central circular areas and surrounding rectangular or polygonal sections. The plans highlight structural elements such as columns, walls, and entrances, illustrating different design styles and spatial arrangements.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"973\" \/><\/a> Left to right: Bramante, plan for Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica, 1506; Raphael, plan for Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica, 1513; Michelangelo, plan for Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica, 1547[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"burial-site-of-saint-peter\">Burial site of Saint Peter<\/h3>\r\nThe site is a very holy one\u2014it is (according to the Catholic Church) the site of the burial of\u00a0Saint Peter. Bramante did the first plan for the new church. He proposed an enormous centrally planned church in the shape of a\u00a0Greek cross\u00a0enclosed within a square with an enormous dome over the center, and smaller domes and half-domes radiating out. When Bramante died, Raphael took over as chief architect for Saint Peter\u2019s, and when Raphael died, Michelangelo took over. Both Michelangelo and Raphael made substantial changes to Bramante\u2019s original plan. Nevertheless, the experience of being inside Saint Peter\u2019s is awe-inspiring.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/52293495211_b5d2c04981_6k-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/52293495211_b5d2c04981_6k-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph interior of Saint Peter's Basilica, Vatican City featuring a high vaulted ceiling with intricate gold detailing and large marble columns adorned with sculptures and artwork. Visitors walk across a polished, patterned marble floor, highlighting the vast scale and ornate architectural design.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1682\" \/><\/a> Nave, numerous architects, Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City, begun 1506, completed 1626 (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nEZQfp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3>Basilica and central plan<\/h3>\r\nThe two basic types of churches are the basilica and the central plan. The basilica, with its long axis that focuses attention on the altar, has been the most popular type of church plan because of its practicality.\r\n\r\nThe other popular type of church plan is a central plan that is usually based either on the shape of a circle or on a Greek cross. These are called central plans because the measurements are all equidistant from a center. This type of church, influenced by Classical architecture (think of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-pantheon\/\">Pantheon<\/a>), was very popular among High Renaissance architects. Besides the influence of ancient Roman architecture, the circle had spiritual associations. The circle, which has no beginning and no end, symbolized the perfection and eternal nature of God. For some thinkers in antiquity and the Renaissance, the universe itself was constructed in the form of concentric circles with the sun, moon, and stars moving in circular orbits around the earth.\r\n\r\nBramante\u2019s original design was for a central plan, however\u2014as built\u2014the church combines elements of a central plan with the longer nave of a basilica.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=R5UK0dEFSoM\r\n<h2 id=\"who-was-michelangelo\">Who was Michelangelo?<\/h2>\r\nMichelangelo Buonarotti\u2014the Italian\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/how-to-recognize-italian-renaissance-art\/\">Renaissance<\/a>\u00a0painter, sculptor, architect, and poet\u2014was called \u201cIl Divino\u201d (The Divine One) by his contemporaries because they perceived his artworks to be otherworldly. His art was in high demand, and thought to have\u00a0<em>terribilit\u00e0<\/em>, poorly translated as \u201cterribleness\u201d and better described as powerfulness. He was mythologized by followers, emulated by artists, celebrated by humanists, and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/types-of-renaissance-patronage\/\">patronized<\/a>\u00a0by a total of nine popes. As commemorations, over one hundred portraits of him were created during the sixteenth century alone, far more than any other artist at the time. Despite three biographies written about the artist during his own lifetime, we know the most about the sometimes-generous and often-humorous perfectionist through his letters. Not only do we have more primary sources on Michelangelo than any other historical artist, he is one of the most written-about artists of all time. In today\u2019s terms, Michelangelo was a workaholic homebody whose cats missed him when he was away. He did not like to debate art, waste time, or show his work before he was ready. Despite a few mid-career collaborations, Michelangelo was careful and guarded, never running a typical workshop, locking his studio, and burning drawings. He also complained a lot, and, at times, could be overconfident, curt, and blunt, once resulting in a punch in the nose.\r\n<h2 id=\"michelangelo-david\">Michelangelo,\u00a0<em>David<\/em><\/h2>\r\nWhere\u2019s Goliath? David scans for his enemy. This colossal sculpture is itself a giant of 16th-century Renaissance art.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=QdlP8ai8trw\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nMichelangelo\u2019s <em>David<\/em> stands around seventeen feet tall. It is massive in terms of <strong>scale<\/strong>! Scale is often tied to function. In this case, Michelangelo\u2019s <em>David<\/em> was originally meant for the roofline of Florence\u2019s Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral. At seventeen feet tall, the <strong>scale<\/strong> was important for its visibility to viewers below. Then, it was relocated and its original religious <strong>iconography<\/strong> repurposed for political ideology. Carved from pure white Carrara marble, the sculpture is uniform it is <strong>color<\/strong>. The <strong>figurative form<\/strong> of David is <strong>idealized<\/strong> with its muscularity and symmetrical face. The <strong>composition<\/strong> of the sculpture emphasizes its verticality while Michelangelo captures the subtlety of the human body in the <strong>contrapposto<\/strong> stance. Made from a subtractive carving technique, Michelangelo rendered a range of <strong>textures<\/strong> in marble: smoothness of human skin, softness of curling hair, and rigidity of veins pulsing underneath skin. When looking at the face of David, we follow his gaze. The <strong>implied line<\/strong> created by his line of sight directs our attention to the distance. We know who stands in David\u2019s sight line: Goliath.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"michelangelo-ceiling-of-the-sistine-chapel\">Michelangelo, <em>Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel<\/em><\/h2>\r\nGod created the world in seven days, but it took Michelangelo four years to depict it on this remarkable ceiling.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"799\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/sistine-chapel-ceiling.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/sistine-chapel-ceiling.jpg\" alt=\"View of Michelangelo's Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel featuring a vaulted ceiling covered with intricate Renaissance frescoes depicting biblical scenes and figures. Walls display additional detailed paintings, with scaffolding visible on one side indicating ongoing restoration or maintenance work.\" width=\"799\" height=\"1182\" \/><\/a> Michelangelo, Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, 1508\u201312, fresco (Vatican City, Rome) (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Commons:MyGallery&amp;withJS=MediaWiki:JSONListUploads.js&amp;gUser=J%C3%B6rg+Bittner+Unna\">J\u00f6rg Bittner Unna<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 3.0 <\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1120\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/Sistine_ceiling.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Sistine_ceiling.jpg\" alt=\"Sistine Chapel ceiling frescoes by Michelangelo, showcasing intricate biblical scenes and figures arranged in a grid-like structure with vibrant colors and detailed human forms. Key elements include central panels depicting stories from Genesis, surrounded by prophets, sibyls, and decorative architectural motifs.\" width=\"1120\" height=\"494\" \/><\/a> Michelangelo, Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, 1508\u201312, fresco (Vatican City, Rome), Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:CAPPELLA_SISTINA_Ceiling.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/User:Amandajm\">Amandajm<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"visiting-the-chapel\">Visiting the Chapel<\/h3>\r\nTo any visitor of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/who-was-michelangelo\/\">Michelangelo\u2019s<\/a>\u00a0Sistine Chapel, two features become immediately and undeniably apparent: 1) the ceiling is really high up, and 2) there are a lot of paintings up there.\u00a0Because of this, the centuries have handed down to us an image of Michelangelo lying on his back, wiping sweat and plaster from his eyes as he toiled away year after year, suspended hundreds of feet in the air, begrudgingly completing a commission that he never wanted to accept in the first place.\r\n\r\nFortunately for Michelangelo, this is probably not true. But that does nothing to lessen the fact that the frescoes, which take up the entirety of the vault, are among the most important paintings in the world.\r\n<h3 id=\"for-pope-julius-ii\">For Pope Julius II<\/h3>\r\nMichelangelo began to work on the frescoes for Pope Julius II in 1508, replacing a blue ceiling dotted with stars. Originally, the pope asked Michelangelo to paint the ceiling with a geometric ornament, and place the twelve apostles in spandrels around the decoration.\u00a0Michelangelo proposed instead to paint the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christianity-an-introduction\/#:~:text=Old%20and%C2%A0New%20Testaments\">Old Testament<\/a> scenes now found on the vault, divided by the fictive architecture that he uses to organize the composition.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-subject-of-the-frescoes\">The subject of the frescoes<\/h3>\r\nThe narrative begins at the altar and is divided into three sections. In the first three paintings, Michelangelo tells the story of\u00a0<em>The Creation of the Heavens and Earth<\/em>; this is followed by\u00a0<em>The Creation of Adam and Eve<\/em>\u00a0and the\u00a0<em>Expulsion from the Garden of Eden<\/em>; finally is the story of\u00a0<em>Noah and the Great Flood<\/em>.\r\n\r\nIgnudi, or nude youths, sit in fictive architecture around these frescoes, and they are accompanied by prophets and sibyls (ancient seers who, according to tradition, foretold the coming of Christ) in the spandrels. In the four corners of the room, in the pendentives, one finds scenes depicting the Salvation of Israel.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1063\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/1599px-Adams_Creation_Sistine_Chapel_ceiling_by_Michelangelo_JBU33.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/1599px-Adams_Creation_Sistine_Chapel_ceiling_by_Michelangelo_JBU33.jpg\" alt=\"Michelangelo, The Creation of Adam, Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Adam lying on the earth with an arm outstretched to God, who floats in the air surrounded by a host of heavenly figures.\" width=\"1063\" height=\"746\" \/><\/a> Michelangelo, <em>The Creation of Adam<\/em>, Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, 1508\u201312, fresco (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Commons:MyGallery&amp;withJS=MediaWiki:JSONListUploads.js&amp;gUser=J%C3%B6rg+Bittner+Unna\">J\u00f6rg Bittner Unna<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"the-deluge\">The Deluge<\/h3>\r\nAlthough the most famous of these frescoes is without a doubt,\u00a0<em>The Creation of Adam<\/em>, reproductions of which have become ubiquitous in modern culture for its dramatic positioning of the two monumental figures reaching towards each other, not all of the frescoes are painted in this style. In fact, the first frescoes Michelangelo painted contain multiple figures, much smaller in size, engaged in complex narratives. This can best be exemplified by his painting of\u00a0<em>The Deluge<\/em>.\r\n\r\nIn this fresco, Michelangelo has used the physical space of the water and the sky to separate four distinct parts of the narrative. On the right side of the painting, a cluster of people seeks sanctuary from the rain under a makeshift shelter. On the left, even more people climb up the side of a mountain to escape the rising water. Centrally, a small boat is about to capsize because of the unending downpour. And in the background, a team of men work on building the arc\u2014the only hope of salvation.\r\n\r\nUp close, this painting confronts the viewer with the desperation of those about to perish in the flood and makes one question God\u2019s justice in wiping out the entire population of the earth, save Noah and his family, because of the sins of the wicked. Unfortunately, from the floor of the chapel, the use of small, tightly grouped figures undermines the emotional content and makes the story harder to follow.\r\n<h3 id=\"a-shift-in-style\">A shift in style<\/h3>\r\nIn 1510, Michelangelo took a yearlong break from painting the Sistine Chapel. The frescoes painted after this break are characteristically different from the ones he painted before it, and are emblematic of what we think of when we envision the Sistine Chapel paintings. These are the paintings, like\u00a0<em>The Creation of Adam<\/em>, where the narratives have been pared down to only the essential figures depicted on a monumental scale. Because of these changes, Michelangelo is able to convey a strong sense of emotionality that can be perceived from the floor of the chapel. Indeed, the imposing figure of God in the three frescoes illustrating the separation of darkness from light and the creation of the heavens and the earth radiates power throughout his body, and his dramatic gesticulations help to tell the story of Genesis without the addition of extraneous detail.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1009\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/2560px-Italy-3213_5387897550.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/2560px-Italy-3213_5387897550.jpg\" alt=\"Michelangelo, Creation scenes, Sistine Chapel Ceiling depicting multiple biblical and mythological figures in dynamic poses, surrounded by architectural elements like columns and arches. The artwork features vibrant colors, detailed human forms, and a central sun motif, illustrating themes of creation and divine intervention.\" width=\"1009\" height=\"816\" \/><\/a> Michelangelo, Creation scenes, Sistine Chapel Ceiling, 1508\u201312, fresco (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Italy-3218_-_Creation_(5387304891).jpg\">Dennis Jarvis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"the-sibyls\">The Sibyls<\/h3>\r\nThis new monumentality can also be felt in the figures of the sibyls and prophets in the spandrels surrounding the vault, which some believe are all based on the\u00a0<em>Belvedere Torso<\/em>, an ancient sculpture that was then, and remains, in the Vatican\u2019s collection. One of the most celebrated of these figures is the\u00a0<em>Delphic Sibyl<\/em>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1024\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/Delphic_Sibyl.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Delphic_Sibyl.jpg\" alt=\"Michelangelo, Delphic Sibyl, Sistine Chapel Ceiling, depicting a seated female figure labeled &quot;Delphica,&quot; draped in colorful robes of orange, green, and purple, holding a scroll. Two smaller figures stand behind her, set against an architectural background with sculpted columns and decorative elements.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"1536\" \/><\/a> Michelangelo, <em>Delphic Sibyl<\/em>, Sistine Chapel Ceiling, 1508\u201312, fresco (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Commons:MyGallery&amp;withJS=MediaWiki:JSONListUploads.js&amp;gUser=J%C3%B6rg+Bittner+Unna\">J\u00f6rg Bittner Unna<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe overall circular composition of the body, which echoes the contours of her fictive architectural setting, adds to the sense of the sculptural weight of the figure.\r\n\r\nHer arms are powerful, the heft of her body imposing, and both her left elbow and knee come into the viewer\u2019s space. At the same time, Michelangelo imbued the Delphic Sibyl with grace and harmony of proportion, and her watchful expression, as well as the position of the left arm and right hand, is reminiscent of the artist\u2019s\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-david\/\"><em>David<\/em><\/a>.\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-studies-for-the-libyan-sibyl-recto-studies-for-the-libyan-sibyl-and-a-small-sketch-for-a-seated-figure-verso\/\"><em>The Libyan Sibyl<\/em>\u00a0<\/a>is also exemplary. Although she is in a contorted position that would be nearly impossible for an actual person to hold, Michelangelo nonetheless executes her with a\u00a0<em>sprezzatura<\/em>\u00a0(a deceptive ease) that will become typical of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/europe-1300-1800\/italy-16th-century\/mannerism-introduction\/\">Mannerists<\/a>\u00a0who closely modelled their work on his.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1024\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/1024px-LibyanSibyl_Sistine_Chapel_ceiling_by_Michelangelo_JBU34.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/1024px-LibyanSibyl_Sistine_Chapel_ceiling_by_Michelangelo_JBU34.jpg\" alt=\"Michelangelo, Libyan Sibyl depicting a seated woman labeled &quot;Libica&quot; holding a book, surrounded by two other figures. The artwork features detailed drapery in orange, pink, and green tones, with sculpted reliefs visible in the background.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"1287\" \/><\/a> Michelangelo, <em>Libyan Sibyl<\/em>, c. 1511, fresco, part of the Sistine Chapel ceiling (Vatican Museums; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Commons:MyGallery&amp;withJS=MediaWiki:JSONListUploads.js&amp;gUser=J%C3%B6rg+Bittner+Unna\">J\u00f6rg Bittner Unna<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIt is no wonder that\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/raphael-introduction\/\">Raphael<\/a>, struck by the genius of the Sistine Chapel, rushed back to his\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/raphael-school-of-athens\/\"><em>School of Athens<\/em><\/a>\u00a0in the Vatican Stanze and inserted Michelangelo\u2019s weighty, monumental likeness sitting at the bottom of the steps of the school.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"881\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/Vatican_Museums-6_193.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Vatican_Museums-6_193.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph of a classical painting depicting a seated man in a purple robe and brown boots, writing on a piece of paper placed on a stone desk. The scene highlights detailed textures of clothing and architecture, emphasizing contemplative posture and historical artistic style.\" width=\"881\" height=\"1267\" \/><\/a> <em>Heraclitus<\/em>, whose features are based on Michelangelo\u2019s and his seated pose is based on the prophets and sibyls from Michelangelo\u2019s frescoes on the Sistine Chapel Ceiling (detail), Raphael, School of Athens, 1509\u201311, Stanza della Segnatura (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Heraclitus_in_the_form_of_Michelangelo,_detail_from_Raphael%27s_The_School_of_Athens_(1510%E2%80%931511),_fresco_in_the_Stanza_della_Segnatura,_Vatican.jpg\">Darafsh<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"legacy\">Legacy<\/h3>\r\nMichelangelo completed the Sistine Chapel in 1512. Its importance in the history of art cannot be overstated. It turned into a veritable academy for young painters, a position that was cemented when Michelangelo returned to the chapel twenty years later to execute the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-last-judgment\/\">Last Judgment fresco<\/a>\u00a0on the altar wall.\r\n\r\nThe chapel recently underwent a controversial cleaning, which has once again brought to light Michelangelo\u2019s jewel-like palette, his mastery of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/chiaroscuro-explained\/\">chiaroscuro<\/a>, and additional iconological details which continue to captivate modern viewers even five hundred years after the frescoes\u2019 original completion. Not bad for an artist who insisted he was not a painter.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=PEE3B8Fsuc0\r\n<h2 id=\"raphael-school-of-athens\">Raphael,\u00a0<em>School of Athens<\/em><\/h2>\r\nRaphael was a key figure in the Italian High Renaissance, known for his mastery of classical style in both religious and secular works. In Raphael\u2019s <em>School of Athens<\/em>, two great philosophers of antiquity, Plato and Aristotle, face off in this meeting of minds\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Smd-q44ysoM\r\n<h2 id=\"disegno-versus-colorito\">Disegno versus Colorito<\/h2>\r\nDuring the Italian Renaissance, two competing concepts of how to organize a painting emerged: disegno and colorito. Disegno was \u201ca term that literally translates to \u2018drawing\u2019 but rather emphasized highly the esteemed skill of crafting harmonious and proportional compositions and figures.\u201d Artists working in Florence and Rome, such as da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, all tended to prioritize disegno. Colorito, by contrast, emphasizes the power of color.\r\n\r\nThe emphasis on\u00a0<em>disegno<\/em>\u00a0increased during the fifteenth century\u2014emerging, for instance, in the writings of Antonio di Pietro Averlino (better known as Filarete)\u2014but arguably grew to new prominence in the sixteenth century. For example, following in the mode of\u00a0Giorgio Vasari, who declared\u00a0<em>disegno<\/em>\u00a0the father of the three arts (painting, sculpture, and architecture), Vincenzo Danti published in 1567 his\u00a0<em>Trattato delle perfetti proporzioni (Treatise on Ideal Proportions)<\/em>, in which he declared the beauty of art as stemming from the artist\u2019s capabilities in\u00a0<em>disegno\u00a0<\/em>to capture these ratios; Federico Zuccaro echoed a similar sentiment in\u00a0<em>L\u2019Idea di pittori, scultori ed architetti\u00a0<\/em>\u00a0(1607), in which he proclaimed \u201cpainting is . . . the daughter of Nature and\u00a0<em>Disegno.\u201d\u00a0<\/em> Disegno<em>\u00a0<\/em>was particularly celebrated in cities like Rome, where the study of antique artifacts prompted artists to excel in conjuring the details of the body.\r\n\r\nIn contrast, artists from Venice became associated with the idea of color. Working with the rich, luminous quality of oil paint emerging from Northern Europe, the idea of colorito prioritizes the use of color to balance a composition. One such artist, Titian, created his now-iconic <em>Venus of Urbino<\/em> using the concept of colorito and worked in the fresh \u201cnew\u201d medium of oil paint.\r\n<h2 id=\"titian-venus-of-urbino\">Titian,\u00a0<em>Venus of Urbino<\/em><\/h2>\r\nA Venetian painter who was internationally famous in his own time, Titian is celebrated for his use of color, which influenced many later artists.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=qD6ct0VS15c\r\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-2\">Conclusion<\/h2>\r\nFrom Florence and Rome to Venice, the High Renaissance produced works of art shaped by the larger cultural revival of interest in humanism. Artists like da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael brought together elements of the Classical world with Christian theology to create artworks that celebrated the human body, naturalism, and concepts of idealized beauty. The compositional principles of disegno and colorito, which often competed with one another, will become a major discussion for artists until the 21<sup>st<\/sup> century\r\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-2\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\r\nThe following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Introduction to High Renaissance Architecture<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Conclusion<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>\u201cDisegno versus Colorito\u201d contains elements written by Chelsea Wright <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> and remix of the Smarthistory article: Dr. Alexis Culotta, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/italian-renaissance-drawing\/\">Preparatory drawing during the Italian renaissance, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, June 15, 2021.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/toward-the-high-renaissance-an-introduction\/\">Toward the High Renaissance, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/leonardo-da-vinci\/\">Leonardo da Vinci<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/leonardo-last-supper\/\">Leonardo,\u00a0<em>Last Supper<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/leonardo-mona-lisa\/\">Leonardo,\u00a0<em>Mona Lisa<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/donato-bramante\/\">Donato Bramante<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/donato-bramante-tempietto-rome\/\">Donato Bramante, Tempietto, Rome<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 5, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/st-peters-basilica\/\">Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Tamara Smithers, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/who-was-michelangelo\/\">Who was Michelangelo?<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 10, 2020.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-david\/\">Michelangelo,\u00a0<em>David<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 6, 2020.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Christine Zappella, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-ceiling-of-the-sistine-chapel\/\">Michelangelo, Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/raphael\/\">Raphael<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/raphael-school-of-athens\/\">Raphael,\u00a0<em>School of Athens<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 15, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/titian\/\">Titian<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. James R. Jewitt, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/titian-venus-of-urbino\/\">Titian,\u00a0<em>Venus of Urbino<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 20, 2020.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-2\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\n<p>The High Renaissance produced some of the most famous names in art history: Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Such artists of the High Renaissance in Italy represent the epitome of Renaissance philosophy and artistic aesthetic. The term &#8220;High Renaissance&#8221; is associated with the period of c. 1490-1520 and only in Italy. During this period, Rome strengthened as an artistic center with the Pope and the Vatican becoming one of the most prominent patrons of art and architecture in all Europe.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-2\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Leonardo da Vinci,\u00a0<em>Last Supper,\u00a0<\/em>c. 1495-1498, oil and tempera on plaster<\/li>\n<li><em>New Saint Peter&#8217;s<\/em>, Vatican, Rome<\/li>\n<li>Michelangelo Buonarroti,\u00a0<em>David,<\/em>\u00a01501-1504, marble<\/li>\n<li>Michelangelo Buonarroti,\u00a0<em>Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel,<\/em>\u00a0Vatican City, Rome, 1508-1512, fresco<\/li>\n<li>Raphael Sanzio,\u00a0<em>Philosophy (School of Athens)<\/em>, Stanza della Segnatura, Vatican City, Rome, Italy, 1509-1511, fresco<\/li>\n<li>Titian Vecellio,\u00a0<em>Venus of Urbino,\u00a0<\/em>1536-1538, oil on canvas<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"term-list-2\">Term List<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>High Renaissance<\/li>\n<li>Humanism<\/li>\n<li>Neo-Platonism<\/li>\n<li>Linear perspective<\/li>\n<li>Sfumato<\/li>\n<li>Martyria<\/li>\n<li>Basilica<\/li>\n<li>Saint Peter<\/li>\n<li>Central Plan<\/li>\n<li>Contrapposto<\/li>\n<li>Chiaroscuro<\/li>\n<li>Disegno<\/li>\n<li>Colorito<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"toward-the-high-renaissance-an-introduction\">Toward the High Renaissance, an introduction<\/h2>\n<p>When you think of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/primer-italian-renaissance-art\/\">Renaissance<\/a>, the names that come to mind are probably the artists of this period (the High Renaissance):\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/about-leonardo\/\">Leonardo<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/europe-1300-1800\/italy-16th-century\/michelangelo\/\">Michelangelo<\/a>, for instance. And perhaps when you think of the greatest work of art in the western world,\u00a0Michelangelo\u2019s\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-ceiling-of-the-sistine-chapel\/\">Sistine Ceiling<\/a>\u00a0might come to mind. This is a period of big, ambitious projects.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"how-is-the-high-renaissance-different-from-the-early-renaissance\">How is the High Renaissance\u00a0different from the Early Renaissance?<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 804px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/standard_Fra_Filippo_Lippi_-_Madonna_and_Child_with_two_Angels_-_Uffizi.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/standard_Fra_Filippo_Lippi_-_Madonna_and_Child_with_two_Angels_-_Uffizi.jpeg\" alt=\"A Renaissance-style painting depicting a woman in a dark blue dress with a white veil holding a baby, accompanied by a young child with wings, likely representing an angel. The background features rocky cliffs and a cloudy sky, with intricate details in clothing textures and a small ornate box in the foreground.\" width=\"804\" height=\"1200\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fra Filippo Lippi, <em>Madonna and Child with Two Angels<\/em>, c. 1460\u201365, tempera on panel, 95 x 63.5 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.uffizi.it\/en\/artworks\/lippi-madonna-and-child-with-two-angels\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>As the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/humanism-renaissance-italy\/\">Humanism<\/a>\u00a0of the Early Renaissance develops, a problem arises. Have a look at Fra Filippo Lippi\u2019s\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/lippi-madonna-and-child-with-two-angels\/\"><em>Madonna and Child with Angels<\/em><\/a>. We see\u00a0a Madonna and Christ Child that have\u00a0become so real\u2014the figures appear so human\u2014that in some ways we can hardly tell that these are divine figures (except perhaps for the faint outline\u00a0of a halo, and Mary\u2019s sorrowful expression and hands clasped in prayer). On the other hand,\u00a0in the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-new-pictorial-language-the-image-in-early-medieval-art\/\">Middle Ages<\/a>, the need to create transcendent\u00a0spiritual figures,\u00a0meant a\u00a0move toward abstraction\u2014toward flatness and elongation.<\/p>\n<p>In the Early Renaissance then, a tension arises. To create spiritual figures, your image can\u2019t look very real, and if you want your image to appear real, then you sacrifice some spirituality. In the late 15th century though, Leonardo da Vinci creates figures who are physical and real (just as real as Lippi\u2019s or\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/masaccio-virgin-and-child-enthroned\/\">Masaccio\u2019s<\/a>\u00a0figures), and yet they have an undeniable and intense spirituality. We could say that Leonardo unites the real and spiritual, or soul and substance.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2157px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/VerrocchioBaptismFull-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/VerrocchioBaptismFull-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"A religious painting depicting the baptism of Jesus by John the Baptist in a natural landscape with a river and rocky terrain. Key elements include halos around figures' heads, a dove with radiant light above symbolizing the Holy Spirit, and two kneeling figures observing the scene.\" width=\"2157\" height=\"2560\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Andrea del Verrocchio (with Leonardo), <em>Baptism of Christ<\/em>, 1470\u201375, oil and tempera on panel, 180 x 152 cm (Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nJ5Wei\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The best way to see this\u00a0is in this painting by\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/verrocchio-david-with-the-head-of-goliath\/\">Verrocchio<\/a>\u2014an important Early Renaissance artist who Leonardo was apprenticed to when he was young. Verrocchio asked Leonardo to paint one of the angels in his painting of the\u00a0<em>Baptism of Christ<\/em>.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 811px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/VerrocchioBaptismAngels.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/image14.jpeg\" alt=\"Detail, Andrea del Verrocchio (with Leonardo), Baptism of Christ depicting two haloed figures kneeling on a stone surface, dressed in flowing blue and red robes. The scene includes detailed textures of fabric and stone, with warm earth tones in the background and a white cloth held by one figure, suggesting a biblical or saintly context.\" width=\"811\" height=\"1376\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Detail, Andrea del Verrocchio (with Leonardo), <em>Baptism of Christ,<\/em> 1470\u201375, oil and tempera on panel, 180 x 152 cm (Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nHYwvg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Can you tell which angel is Leonardo\u2019s? One angel should look more like a boy\u2014that\u2019s the Early Renaissance angel (the one painted by Verrocchio) and the other angel should look truly divine, sent by God from heaven (that\u2019s Leonardo\u2019s angel).<\/p>\n<p>The angel on the left is Leonardo\u2019s.<\/p>\n<p>Leonardo\u2019s angel is ideally beautiful and moves in a graceful and complex way, twisting her upper body to the left but raising her head up and to the right. Figures that move elegantly and that are ideally beautiful are typical of the High Renaissance.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"leonardo-da-vinci-last-supper\">Leonardo da Vinci,\u00a0<em>Last Supper<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>\u201cLeonardo imagined, and has succeeded in expressing, the desire that has entered the minds of the apostles to know who is betraying their Master. So in the face of each one may be seen love, fear, indignation, or grief at not being able to understand the meaning of Christ; and this excites no less astonishment than the obstinate hatred and treachery to be seen in Judas.\u201d Giorgio Vasari,\u00a0<em>Lives of the Artists<\/em>, 1568; translated by George Bull<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Leonardo and the Last Supper (renewed!)\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/XCg7o4onjxs?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/52083520739_1e5b3aa6d6_6k-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/52083520739_1e5b3aa6d6_6k-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Leonardo da Vinci's Last Supper depicting a long dining table with Jesus Christ at the center surrounded by his twelve apostles during the Last Supper. The artwork features detailed expressions, a muted color palette, and architectural elements like arched windows and a coffered ceiling.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1534\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Leonardo da Vinci, <em>Last Supper<\/em>, oil, tempera, fresco, 1495\u201398 (Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nmrE9T\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"subject\">Subject<\/h3>\n<p>The subject of the\u00a0<em>Last Supper<\/em>\u00a0is\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/standard-scenes-from-the-life-of-christ-in-art\/\">Christ\u2019s<\/a>\u00a0final meal with his apostles before Judas identifies Christ to the authorities who arrest him. The Last Supper (a Passover\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-golden-haggadah\/\">Seder<\/a>) is remembered for two events:<\/p>\n<p>Christ says to his apostles, \u201cOne of you will betray me,\u201d and the apostles react, each according to his own personality. Referring to the Gospels, Leonardo depicts Philip asking, \u201cLord, is it I?\u201d Christ replies, \u201cHe that dippeth his hand with me in the dish, the same shall betray me\u201d (Matthew 26). We see Christ and Judas simultaneously reaching toward a plate that lies between them, even as Judas defensively backs away.<\/p>\n<p>Leonardo also simultaneously depicts Christ blessing the bread and saying to the apostles, \u201cTake, eat; this is my body\u201d and blessing the wine and saying \u201cDrink from it all of you; for this is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for the forgiveness of sins\u201d (Matthew 26). These words are the founding moment of the sacrament of the Eucharist (the miraculous transformation of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ).<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"apostles-identified\">Apostles identified<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/DetailLeonardoLastSupper-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/DetailLeonardoLastSupper-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Detail of da Vinci's Last Supper fresco depicting a group of men seated at a long table, identified by labels as Andrew, Judas, Peter, John, Christ, and Thomas. The scene captures a significant biblical moment with detailed expressions, varied postures, and a background featuring windows showing a landscape.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1669\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Detail, Leonardo da Vinci, <em>Last Supper<\/em>, oil, tempera, fresco, 1495\u201398 (Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nmqqyA\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Leonardo\u2019s\u00a0<em>Last Supper<\/em>\u00a0is dense with symbolic references. Attributes identify each apostle. For example, Judas Iscariot is recognized both as he reaches toward a plate beside Christ (Matthew 26) and because he clutches a purse containing his reward for identifying Christ to the authorities the following day. Peter, who sits beside Judas, holds a knife in his right hand, foreshadowing that Peter will sever the ear of a soldier as he attempts to protect Christ from arrest.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"suggestions-of-the-heavenly\">Suggestions of the heavenly<\/h3>\n<p>The balanced composition is anchored by an equilateral triangle formed by Christ\u2019s body. He sits below an arching pediment that, if completed, traces a circle. These ideal geometric forms refer to the renaissance interest in Neo-Platonism (an element of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/humanism-renaissance-italy\/\">humanist revival<\/a>\u00a0that reconciles aspects of Greek philosophy with Christian theology).\u00a0In his allegory, \u201cThe Cave,\u201d the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-greece-an-introduction\/\">Ancient Greek<\/a>\u00a0philosopher Plato emphasized the imperfection of the earthly realm. Geometry, used by the Greeks to express heavenly perfection, has been used by Leonardo to celebrate Christ as the embodiment of heaven on earth.<\/p>\n<p>Leonardo rendered a verdant landscape beyond the windows. Often interpreted as paradise, it has been suggested that this heavenly sanctuary can only be reached through Christ.<\/p>\n<p>The twelve apostles are arranged as four groups of three and there are also three windows. The number three is often a reference to the Holy Trinity in Catholic art. In contrast, the number four is important in the classical tradition (e.g. Plato\u2019s four virtues).<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2244px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/52083283521_3535f086b9_4k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/52083283521_3535f086b9_4k.jpg\" alt=\"Christ (detail), Leonardo da Vinci, Last Supper. The central figure wears a red and blue robe, with bread and cups placed on the table, set against a backdrop of windows showing a distant landscape.\" width=\"2244\" height=\"2303\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Christ (detail), Leonardo da Vinci, <em>Last Supper,<\/em> oil, tempera, fresco, 1495\u201398 (Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nmqrCV\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"the-last-supper-in-the-early-renaissance\">The Last Supper in the early Renaissance<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/11\/51179579781_8bbf1fdf66_5k-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/51179579781_8bbf1fdf66_5k-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Andrea del Castagno, The Last Supper, 1447, a large Renaissance fresco depicting the Last Supper with Jesus and twelve apostles seated at a long table. The fresco features detailed architectural elements, vibrant colors, and expressive figures, highlighting key moments of the biblical scene.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1451\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Andrea del Castagno, <em>The Last Supper<\/em>, 1447, fresco, 453 x 975 cm (refectory of the convent of Sant\u2019Apollonia, now the Museo di Cenacolo di Sant\u2019Apollonia, Florence; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2kYyHZX\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Andrea del Castagno\u2019s\u00a0<em>Last Supper<\/em>\u00a0is typical of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/florence-in-the-early-renaissance\/\">early Renaissance<\/a>. The use of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/linear-perspective-brunelleschis-experiment\/\">linear perspective<\/a>\u00a0in combination with ornate forms such as the sphinxes on the ends of the bench and the marble paneling tend to detract from the spirituality of the event. In contrast, Leonardo simplified the architecture, eliminating unnecessary and distracting details so that the architecture can instead amplify the spirituality. The window and arching pediment even suggest a halo. \u00a0By crowding all of the figures together, Leonardo uses the table as a barrier to separate the spiritual realm from the viewer\u2019s earthly world. Paradoxically, Leonardo\u2019s emphasis on spirituality results in a painting that is more naturalistic than Castagno\u2019s.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"leonardo-da-vinci-mona-lisa\">Leonardo da Vinci,\u00a0<em>Mona Lisa<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>An inventor and key creator of High Renaissance style, Leonardo da Vinci\u2019s skill in evoking character came from a masterful handling of space and chiaroscuro.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"portraits-were-once-rare\">Portraits were once rare<\/h3>\n<p>We live in a culture that is so saturated with images, it may be difficult to imagine a time when only the wealthiest people had their likeness captured. The wealthy merchants of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/florence-in-the-early-renaissance\/\">renaissance Florence<\/a>\u00a0could\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/types-of-renaissance-patronage\/\">commission<\/a>\u00a0a portrait, but even they would likely only have a single portrait painted during their lifetime. A portrait was about more than likeness, it spoke to status and position. In addition, portraits generally took a long time to paint, and the subject would commonly have to sit for hours or days, while the artist captured their likeness.<\/p>\n<p>The\u00a0<em>Mona Lisa<\/em>\u00a0was originally this type of portrait, but over time its meaning has shifted and it has become an icon of the Renaissance\u2014perhaps\u00a0the most recognized painting in the world. The\u00a0<em>Mona Lisa<\/em>\u00a0is a likely a portrait of the wife of a Florentine merchant. For some reason however, the portrait was never delivered to its patron, and Leonardo kept it with him when he went to work for\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/french-mannerism-fontainebleau\/\">Francis I<\/a>, the King of France.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-most-recognized-painting-in-the-world\">The most recognized painting in the world<\/h3>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Leonardo, The Mona Lisa \u2014 in the Renaissance and today\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/B06PK4yZwvY?start=5&#38;feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"introducing-high-renaissance-architecture\">Introducing High Renaissance Architecture<\/h2>\n<p>As with the geometry used by da Vinci in pieces like the <em>Last Supper<\/em>, Renaissance architects also returned to Ancient Greek ideas about geometry \u201cto express heavenly perfection.\u201d Architects like Bramante in the <em>Tempietto<\/em> and the Renaissance rebuilding of St. Peter\u2019s Basilica in Rome are reflections of both Ancient Greek concepts of geometry and the philosophy of Neo-Platonism.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"donato-bramante-tempietto-rome\">Donato Bramante, Tempietto, Rome<\/h2>\n<p>An architect, painter, and engineer, Donato Bramante\u2019s High Renaissance designs had an enduring influence on architecture in the 16th century.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"Bramante, Tempietto\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/QXIXA4_5ehw?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"saint-peters-basilica\">Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica<\/h2>\n<p>The greatest minds of the High Renaissance worked on this vast church. Construction took more than a century.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/52293497603_1c1945e2ad_5k-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/52293497603_1c1945e2ad_5k-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph of a wide street leading to St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City, showcasing Renaissance architecture and a large dome under a cloudy sky. The street is lined with historic buildings, street lamps, and pedestrians, highlighting a calm urban scene.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1440\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Numerous architects, Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City, begun 1506, completed 1626 (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nEZQXD\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Architects and designers included: Donato Bramante (whose design won Julius II\u2019s competition); Antonio da Sangallo, a student of Bramante (the Pauline Chapel); Fra Giocondo (strengthening of the foundation); Raphael and Fra Giocondo (whose redesigned building plan was not executed); Michelangelo (design of the dome, crossing, and exterior excluding the nave and facade); Giacomo della Porta (design of the cupola); Carlo Maderno (extension of Michelangelo\u2019s plan, adding a nave and grand facade); Gian Lorenzo Bernini (addition of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bernini-st-peters-square-2\/\">piazza<\/a>, the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bernini-cathedra-petri-chair-of-st-peter\/\">Cathedra Petri<\/a>, and the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/bernini-baldacchino\/\">Baldacchino<\/a>)<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1280px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/1280px-Basilica_di_San_Pietro_1450.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/1280px-Basilica_di_San_Pietro_1450.jpg\" alt=\"A detailed black-and-white architectural drawing depicts Old Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome around the year 1450. The illustration highlights the basilica's large rectangular layout, central nave, multiple domes, bell tower, and surrounding structures, providing historical context of the site's design and scale.\" width=\"1280\" height=\"849\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">H.W. Brewer, Drawing of Old Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica as it appeared between 1475 and 1483, 1891<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Pope Julius II commissioned Bramante to build a new basilica\u2014this involved demolishing the Old St Peter\u2019s Basilica that had been erected by Constantine in the 4th century. This ancient church was in disrepair. But tearing it down was a bold maneuver that gives us a sense of the enormous ambition of Pope Julius II, both for the papacy as well as for himself.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/st-peters-arch-plans-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/st-peters-arch-plans-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Three black and white architectural floor plans of churches or cathedrals are shown side by side, each with distinct layouts featuring central circular areas and surrounding rectangular or polygonal sections. The plans highlight structural elements such as columns, walls, and entrances, illustrating different design styles and spatial arrangements.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"973\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Left to right: Bramante, plan for Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica, 1506; Raphael, plan for Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica, 1513; Michelangelo, plan for Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica, 1547<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"burial-site-of-saint-peter\">Burial site of Saint Peter<\/h3>\n<p>The site is a very holy one\u2014it is (according to the Catholic Church) the site of the burial of\u00a0Saint Peter. Bramante did the first plan for the new church. He proposed an enormous centrally planned church in the shape of a\u00a0Greek cross\u00a0enclosed within a square with an enormous dome over the center, and smaller domes and half-domes radiating out. When Bramante died, Raphael took over as chief architect for Saint Peter\u2019s, and when Raphael died, Michelangelo took over. Both Michelangelo and Raphael made substantial changes to Bramante\u2019s original plan. Nevertheless, the experience of being inside Saint Peter\u2019s is awe-inspiring.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/04\/52293495211_b5d2c04981_6k-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/52293495211_b5d2c04981_6k-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph interior of Saint Peter's Basilica, Vatican City featuring a high vaulted ceiling with intricate gold detailing and large marble columns adorned with sculptures and artwork. Visitors walk across a polished, patterned marble floor, highlighting the vast scale and ornate architectural design.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1682\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Nave, numerous architects, Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City, begun 1506, completed 1626 (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2nEZQfp\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3>Basilica and central plan<\/h3>\n<p>The two basic types of churches are the basilica and the central plan. The basilica, with its long axis that focuses attention on the altar, has been the most popular type of church plan because of its practicality.<\/p>\n<p>The other popular type of church plan is a central plan that is usually based either on the shape of a circle or on a Greek cross. These are called central plans because the measurements are all equidistant from a center. This type of church, influenced by Classical architecture (think of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-pantheon\/\">Pantheon<\/a>), was very popular among High Renaissance architects. Besides the influence of ancient Roman architecture, the circle had spiritual associations. The circle, which has no beginning and no end, symbolized the perfection and eternal nature of God. For some thinkers in antiquity and the Renaissance, the universe itself was constructed in the form of concentric circles with the sun, moon, and stars moving in circular orbits around the earth.<\/p>\n<p>Bramante\u2019s original design was for a central plan, however\u2014as built\u2014the church combines elements of a central plan with the longer nave of a basilica.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-4\" title=\"Bramante, et.al., Saint Peter&#39;s Basilica\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/R5UK0dEFSoM?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"who-was-michelangelo\">Who was Michelangelo?<\/h2>\n<p>Michelangelo Buonarotti\u2014the Italian\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/how-to-recognize-italian-renaissance-art\/\">Renaissance<\/a>\u00a0painter, sculptor, architect, and poet\u2014was called \u201cIl Divino\u201d (The Divine One) by his contemporaries because they perceived his artworks to be otherworldly. His art was in high demand, and thought to have\u00a0<em>terribilit\u00e0<\/em>, poorly translated as \u201cterribleness\u201d and better described as powerfulness. He was mythologized by followers, emulated by artists, celebrated by humanists, and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/types-of-renaissance-patronage\/\">patronized<\/a>\u00a0by a total of nine popes. As commemorations, over one hundred portraits of him were created during the sixteenth century alone, far more than any other artist at the time. Despite three biographies written about the artist during his own lifetime, we know the most about the sometimes-generous and often-humorous perfectionist through his letters. Not only do we have more primary sources on Michelangelo than any other historical artist, he is one of the most written-about artists of all time. In today\u2019s terms, Michelangelo was a workaholic homebody whose cats missed him when he was away. He did not like to debate art, waste time, or show his work before he was ready. Despite a few mid-career collaborations, Michelangelo was careful and guarded, never running a typical workshop, locking his studio, and burning drawings. He also complained a lot, and, at times, could be overconfident, curt, and blunt, once resulting in a punch in the nose.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"michelangelo-david\">Michelangelo,\u00a0<em>David<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>Where\u2019s Goliath? David scans for his enemy. This colossal sculpture is itself a giant of 16th-century Renaissance art.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-5\" title=\"Michelangelo&#39;s David and the Florentine Republic\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/QdlP8ai8trw?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Michelangelo\u2019s <em>David<\/em> stands around seventeen feet tall. It is massive in terms of <strong>scale<\/strong>! Scale is often tied to function. In this case, Michelangelo\u2019s <em>David<\/em> was originally meant for the roofline of Florence\u2019s Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral. At seventeen feet tall, the <strong>scale<\/strong> was important for its visibility to viewers below. Then, it was relocated and its original religious <strong>iconography<\/strong> repurposed for political ideology. Carved from pure white Carrara marble, the sculpture is uniform it is <strong>color<\/strong>. The <strong>figurative form<\/strong> of David is <strong>idealized<\/strong> with its muscularity and symmetrical face. The <strong>composition<\/strong> of the sculpture emphasizes its verticality while Michelangelo captures the subtlety of the human body in the <strong>contrapposto<\/strong> stance. Made from a subtractive carving technique, Michelangelo rendered a range of <strong>textures<\/strong> in marble: smoothness of human skin, softness of curling hair, and rigidity of veins pulsing underneath skin. When looking at the face of David, we follow his gaze. The <strong>implied line<\/strong> created by his line of sight directs our attention to the distance. We know who stands in David\u2019s sight line: Goliath.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"michelangelo-ceiling-of-the-sistine-chapel\">Michelangelo, <em>Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>God created the world in seven days, but it took Michelangelo four years to depict it on this remarkable ceiling.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 799px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/sistine-chapel-ceiling.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/sistine-chapel-ceiling.jpg\" alt=\"View of Michelangelo's Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel featuring a vaulted ceiling covered with intricate Renaissance frescoes depicting biblical scenes and figures. Walls display additional detailed paintings, with scaffolding visible on one side indicating ongoing restoration or maintenance work.\" width=\"799\" height=\"1182\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Michelangelo, Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, 1508\u201312, fresco (Vatican City, Rome) (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Commons:MyGallery&amp;withJS=MediaWiki:JSONListUploads.js&amp;gUser=J%C3%B6rg+Bittner+Unna\">J\u00f6rg Bittner Unna<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 3.0 <\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 1120px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/Sistine_ceiling.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Sistine_ceiling.jpg\" alt=\"Sistine Chapel ceiling frescoes by Michelangelo, showcasing intricate biblical scenes and figures arranged in a grid-like structure with vibrant colors and detailed human forms. Key elements include central panels depicting stories from Genesis, surrounded by prophets, sibyls, and decorative architectural motifs.\" width=\"1120\" height=\"494\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Michelangelo, Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, 1508\u201312, fresco (Vatican City, Rome), Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:CAPPELLA_SISTINA_Ceiling.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/User:Amandajm\">Amandajm<\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"visiting-the-chapel\">Visiting the Chapel<\/h3>\n<p>To any visitor of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/who-was-michelangelo\/\">Michelangelo\u2019s<\/a>\u00a0Sistine Chapel, two features become immediately and undeniably apparent: 1) the ceiling is really high up, and 2) there are a lot of paintings up there.\u00a0Because of this, the centuries have handed down to us an image of Michelangelo lying on his back, wiping sweat and plaster from his eyes as he toiled away year after year, suspended hundreds of feet in the air, begrudgingly completing a commission that he never wanted to accept in the first place.<\/p>\n<p>Fortunately for Michelangelo, this is probably not true. But that does nothing to lessen the fact that the frescoes, which take up the entirety of the vault, are among the most important paintings in the world.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"for-pope-julius-ii\">For Pope Julius II<\/h3>\n<p>Michelangelo began to work on the frescoes for Pope Julius II in 1508, replacing a blue ceiling dotted with stars. Originally, the pope asked Michelangelo to paint the ceiling with a geometric ornament, and place the twelve apostles in spandrels around the decoration.\u00a0Michelangelo proposed instead to paint the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christianity-an-introduction\/#:~:text=Old%20and%C2%A0New%20Testaments\">Old Testament<\/a> scenes now found on the vault, divided by the fictive architecture that he uses to organize the composition.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-subject-of-the-frescoes\">The subject of the frescoes<\/h3>\n<p>The narrative begins at the altar and is divided into three sections. In the first three paintings, Michelangelo tells the story of\u00a0<em>The Creation of the Heavens and Earth<\/em>; this is followed by\u00a0<em>The Creation of Adam and Eve<\/em>\u00a0and the\u00a0<em>Expulsion from the Garden of Eden<\/em>; finally is the story of\u00a0<em>Noah and the Great Flood<\/em>.<\/p>\n<p>Ignudi, or nude youths, sit in fictive architecture around these frescoes, and they are accompanied by prophets and sibyls (ancient seers who, according to tradition, foretold the coming of Christ) in the spandrels. In the four corners of the room, in the pendentives, one finds scenes depicting the Salvation of Israel.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1063px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/1599px-Adams_Creation_Sistine_Chapel_ceiling_by_Michelangelo_JBU33.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/1599px-Adams_Creation_Sistine_Chapel_ceiling_by_Michelangelo_JBU33.jpg\" alt=\"Michelangelo, The Creation of Adam, Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. Adam lying on the earth with an arm outstretched to God, who floats in the air surrounded by a host of heavenly figures.\" width=\"1063\" height=\"746\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Michelangelo, <em>The Creation of Adam<\/em>, Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, 1508\u201312, fresco (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Commons:MyGallery&amp;withJS=MediaWiki:JSONListUploads.js&amp;gUser=J%C3%B6rg+Bittner+Unna\">J\u00f6rg Bittner Unna<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"the-deluge\">The Deluge<\/h3>\n<p>Although the most famous of these frescoes is without a doubt,\u00a0<em>The Creation of Adam<\/em>, reproductions of which have become ubiquitous in modern culture for its dramatic positioning of the two monumental figures reaching towards each other, not all of the frescoes are painted in this style. In fact, the first frescoes Michelangelo painted contain multiple figures, much smaller in size, engaged in complex narratives. This can best be exemplified by his painting of\u00a0<em>The Deluge<\/em>.<\/p>\n<p>In this fresco, Michelangelo has used the physical space of the water and the sky to separate four distinct parts of the narrative. On the right side of the painting, a cluster of people seeks sanctuary from the rain under a makeshift shelter. On the left, even more people climb up the side of a mountain to escape the rising water. Centrally, a small boat is about to capsize because of the unending downpour. And in the background, a team of men work on building the arc\u2014the only hope of salvation.<\/p>\n<p>Up close, this painting confronts the viewer with the desperation of those about to perish in the flood and makes one question God\u2019s justice in wiping out the entire population of the earth, save Noah and his family, because of the sins of the wicked. Unfortunately, from the floor of the chapel, the use of small, tightly grouped figures undermines the emotional content and makes the story harder to follow.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"a-shift-in-style\">A shift in style<\/h3>\n<p>In 1510, Michelangelo took a yearlong break from painting the Sistine Chapel. The frescoes painted after this break are characteristically different from the ones he painted before it, and are emblematic of what we think of when we envision the Sistine Chapel paintings. These are the paintings, like\u00a0<em>The Creation of Adam<\/em>, where the narratives have been pared down to only the essential figures depicted on a monumental scale. Because of these changes, Michelangelo is able to convey a strong sense of emotionality that can be perceived from the floor of the chapel. Indeed, the imposing figure of God in the three frescoes illustrating the separation of darkness from light and the creation of the heavens and the earth radiates power throughout his body, and his dramatic gesticulations help to tell the story of Genesis without the addition of extraneous detail.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1009px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/2560px-Italy-3213_5387897550.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/2560px-Italy-3213_5387897550.jpg\" alt=\"Michelangelo, Creation scenes, Sistine Chapel Ceiling depicting multiple biblical and mythological figures in dynamic poses, surrounded by architectural elements like columns and arches. The artwork features vibrant colors, detailed human forms, and a central sun motif, illustrating themes of creation and divine intervention.\" width=\"1009\" height=\"816\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Michelangelo, Creation scenes, Sistine Chapel Ceiling, 1508\u201312, fresco (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Italy-3218_-_Creation_(5387304891).jpg\">Dennis Jarvis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"the-sibyls\">The Sibyls<\/h3>\n<p>This new monumentality can also be felt in the figures of the sibyls and prophets in the spandrels surrounding the vault, which some believe are all based on the\u00a0<em>Belvedere Torso<\/em>, an ancient sculpture that was then, and remains, in the Vatican\u2019s collection. One of the most celebrated of these figures is the\u00a0<em>Delphic Sibyl<\/em>.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/Delphic_Sibyl.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Delphic_Sibyl.jpg\" alt=\"Michelangelo, Delphic Sibyl, Sistine Chapel Ceiling, depicting a seated female figure labeled &quot;Delphica,&quot; draped in colorful robes of orange, green, and purple, holding a scroll. Two smaller figures stand behind her, set against an architectural background with sculpted columns and decorative elements.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"1536\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Michelangelo, <em>Delphic Sibyl<\/em>, Sistine Chapel Ceiling, 1508\u201312, fresco (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Commons:MyGallery&amp;withJS=MediaWiki:JSONListUploads.js&amp;gUser=J%C3%B6rg+Bittner+Unna\">J\u00f6rg Bittner Unna<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The overall circular composition of the body, which echoes the contours of her fictive architectural setting, adds to the sense of the sculptural weight of the figure.<\/p>\n<p>Her arms are powerful, the heft of her body imposing, and both her left elbow and knee come into the viewer\u2019s space. At the same time, Michelangelo imbued the Delphic Sibyl with grace and harmony of proportion, and her watchful expression, as well as the position of the left arm and right hand, is reminiscent of the artist\u2019s\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-david\/\"><em>David<\/em><\/a>.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-studies-for-the-libyan-sibyl-recto-studies-for-the-libyan-sibyl-and-a-small-sketch-for-a-seated-figure-verso\/\"><em>The Libyan Sibyl<\/em>\u00a0<\/a>is also exemplary. Although she is in a contorted position that would be nearly impossible for an actual person to hold, Michelangelo nonetheless executes her with a\u00a0<em>sprezzatura<\/em>\u00a0(a deceptive ease) that will become typical of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/europe-1300-1800\/italy-16th-century\/mannerism-introduction\/\">Mannerists<\/a>\u00a0who closely modelled their work on his.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/1024px-LibyanSibyl_Sistine_Chapel_ceiling_by_Michelangelo_JBU34.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/1024px-LibyanSibyl_Sistine_Chapel_ceiling_by_Michelangelo_JBU34.jpg\" alt=\"Michelangelo, Libyan Sibyl depicting a seated woman labeled &quot;Libica&quot; holding a book, surrounded by two other figures. The artwork features detailed drapery in orange, pink, and green tones, with sculpted reliefs visible in the background.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"1287\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Michelangelo, <em>Libyan Sibyl<\/em>, c. 1511, fresco, part of the Sistine Chapel ceiling (Vatican Museums; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/w\/index.php?title=Commons:MyGallery&amp;withJS=MediaWiki:JSONListUploads.js&amp;gUser=J%C3%B6rg+Bittner+Unna\">J\u00f6rg Bittner Unna<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>It is no wonder that\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/raphael-introduction\/\">Raphael<\/a>, struck by the genius of the Sistine Chapel, rushed back to his\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/raphael-school-of-athens\/\"><em>School of Athens<\/em><\/a>\u00a0in the Vatican Stanze and inserted Michelangelo\u2019s weighty, monumental likeness sitting at the bottom of the steps of the school.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 881px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/09\/Vatican_Museums-6_193.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/Vatican_Museums-6_193.jpg\" alt=\"A photograph of a classical painting depicting a seated man in a purple robe and brown boots, writing on a piece of paper placed on a stone desk. The scene highlights detailed textures of clothing and architecture, emphasizing contemplative posture and historical artistic style.\" width=\"881\" height=\"1267\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>Heraclitus<\/em>, whose features are based on Michelangelo\u2019s and his seated pose is based on the prophets and sibyls from Michelangelo\u2019s frescoes on the Sistine Chapel Ceiling (detail), Raphael, School of Athens, 1509\u201311, Stanza della Segnatura (Vatican City, Rome; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Heraclitus_in_the_form_of_Michelangelo,_detail_from_Raphael%27s_The_School_of_Athens_(1510%E2%80%931511),_fresco_in_the_Stanza_della_Segnatura,_Vatican.jpg\">Darafsh<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"legacy\">Legacy<\/h3>\n<p>Michelangelo completed the Sistine Chapel in 1512. Its importance in the history of art cannot be overstated. It turned into a veritable academy for young painters, a position that was cemented when Michelangelo returned to the chapel twenty years later to execute the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-last-judgment\/\">Last Judgment fresco<\/a>\u00a0on the altar wall.<\/p>\n<p>The chapel recently underwent a controversial cleaning, which has once again brought to light Michelangelo\u2019s jewel-like palette, his mastery of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/chiaroscuro-explained\/\">chiaroscuro<\/a>, and additional iconological details which continue to captivate modern viewers even five hundred years after the frescoes\u2019 original completion. Not bad for an artist who insisted he was not a painter.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-6\" title=\"Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/PEE3B8Fsuc0?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"raphael-school-of-athens\">Raphael,\u00a0<em>School of Athens<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>Raphael was a key figure in the Italian High Renaissance, known for his mastery of classical style in both religious and secular works. In Raphael\u2019s <em>School of Athens<\/em>, two great philosophers of antiquity, Plato and Aristotle, face off in this meeting of minds<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-7\" title=\"Raphael, School of Athens\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Smd-q44ysoM?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"disegno-versus-colorito\">Disegno versus Colorito<\/h2>\n<p>During the Italian Renaissance, two competing concepts of how to organize a painting emerged: disegno and colorito. Disegno was \u201ca term that literally translates to \u2018drawing\u2019 but rather emphasized highly the esteemed skill of crafting harmonious and proportional compositions and figures.\u201d Artists working in Florence and Rome, such as da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael, all tended to prioritize disegno. Colorito, by contrast, emphasizes the power of color.<\/p>\n<p>The emphasis on\u00a0<em>disegno<\/em>\u00a0increased during the fifteenth century\u2014emerging, for instance, in the writings of Antonio di Pietro Averlino (better known as Filarete)\u2014but arguably grew to new prominence in the sixteenth century. For example, following in the mode of\u00a0Giorgio Vasari, who declared\u00a0<em>disegno<\/em>\u00a0the father of the three arts (painting, sculpture, and architecture), Vincenzo Danti published in 1567 his\u00a0<em>Trattato delle perfetti proporzioni (Treatise on Ideal Proportions)<\/em>, in which he declared the beauty of art as stemming from the artist\u2019s capabilities in\u00a0<em>disegno\u00a0<\/em>to capture these ratios; Federico Zuccaro echoed a similar sentiment in\u00a0<em>L\u2019Idea di pittori, scultori ed architetti\u00a0<\/em>\u00a0(1607), in which he proclaimed \u201cpainting is . . . the daughter of Nature and\u00a0<em>Disegno.\u201d\u00a0<\/em> Disegno<em>\u00a0<\/em>was particularly celebrated in cities like Rome, where the study of antique artifacts prompted artists to excel in conjuring the details of the body.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast, artists from Venice became associated with the idea of color. Working with the rich, luminous quality of oil paint emerging from Northern Europe, the idea of colorito prioritizes the use of color to balance a composition. One such artist, Titian, created his now-iconic <em>Venus of Urbino<\/em> using the concept of colorito and worked in the fresh \u201cnew\u201d medium of oil paint.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"titian-venus-of-urbino\">Titian,\u00a0<em>Venus of Urbino<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>A Venetian painter who was internationally famous in his own time, Titian is celebrated for his use of color, which influenced many later artists.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-8\" title=\"Titian, Venus of Urbino\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/qD6ct0VS15c?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-2\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n<p>From Florence and Rome to Venice, the High Renaissance produced works of art shaped by the larger cultural revival of interest in humanism. Artists like da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael brought together elements of the Classical world with Christian theology to create artworks that celebrated the human body, naturalism, and concepts of idealized beauty. The compositional principles of disegno and colorito, which often competed with one another, will become a major discussion for artists until the 21<sup>st<\/sup> century<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-2\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\n<p>The following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\n<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\n<li>Introduction to High Renaissance Architecture<\/li>\n<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\n<li>Conclusion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>\u201cDisegno versus Colorito\u201d contains elements written by Chelsea Wright <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> and remix of the Smarthistory article: Dr. Alexis Culotta, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/italian-renaissance-drawing\/\">Preparatory drawing during the Italian renaissance, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, June 15, 2021.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/toward-the-high-renaissance-an-introduction\/\">Toward the High Renaissance, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/leonardo-da-vinci\/\">Leonardo da Vinci<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/leonardo-last-supper\/\">Leonardo,\u00a0<em>Last Supper<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/leonardo-mona-lisa\/\">Leonardo,\u00a0<em>Mona Lisa<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/donato-bramante\/\">Donato Bramante<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/donato-bramante-tempietto-rome\/\">Donato Bramante, Tempietto, Rome<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 5, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/st-peters-basilica\/\">Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Tamara Smithers, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/who-was-michelangelo\/\">Who was Michelangelo?<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 10, 2020.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-david\/\">Michelangelo,\u00a0<em>David<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 6, 2020.<\/li>\n<li>Christine Zappella, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/michelangelo-ceiling-of-the-sistine-chapel\/\">Michelangelo, Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/raphael\/\">Raphael<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/raphael-school-of-athens\/\">Raphael,\u00a0<em>School of Athens<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 15, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/titian\/\">Titian<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Dr. James R. Jewitt, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/titian-venus-of-urbino\/\">Titian,\u00a0<em>Venus of Urbino<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 20, 2020.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-2922","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2922","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"version-history":[{"count":12,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2922\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3533,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2922\/revisions\/3533"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2922\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2922"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=2922"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=2922"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=2922"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}