{"id":2895,"date":"2026-06-17T19:12:05","date_gmt":"2026-06-17T19:12:05","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/chapter\/early-italian-renaissance\/"},"modified":"2026-07-27T17:49:35","modified_gmt":"2026-07-27T17:49:35","slug":"early-italian-renaissance","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/chapter\/early-italian-renaissance\/","title":{"raw":"Early Italian Renaissance","rendered":"Early Italian Renaissance"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-1\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\r\nThe Renaissance is defined as the rebirth of the Classical Antiquity of Ancient Greece and Rome during the period of c.1400-1600. The Renaissance began in Florence, Italy and spread across Europe. As Italy emerged from the medieval period, artists like Giotto di Bondone were transitioning from the Italo-Byzantine medieval style to early Renaissance concepts. Artists, including Giotto, Brunelleschi, Donatello, and Botticelli, were all living and working around Florence. Florence was a remarkable city during the late 14th and early 15th centuries for its culture of competition and its strong patronage of the arts. As you read and watch the content, pay close attention to the role of the patron and the purpose competition served in the early Renaissance. Some of the most famous artists of this time competed against one another to earn commissions.\r\n\r\nAs part of the early Renaissance, the technique of linear perspective emerged to create the illusion of three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface. From the early Renaissance until the late 19<sup>th<\/sup> century, linear one-point perspective will be the dominant technique for representing pictorial space in two-dimensional artworks.\r\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-1\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Giotto Di Bondone,\u00a0<em>Lamentation<\/em>, Arena Chapel,\u00a0Padua, Italy, c. 1305, fresco<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Filippo Brunelleschi,\u00a0<em>Sacrifice of Isaac<\/em>, competition panel for the east doors of the Florence Baptistery, 1401-1402, gilded bronze relief<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Lorenzo Ghiberti,\u00a0<em>Sacrifice of Isaac<\/em>, competition panel for the east doors of the Florence Baptistery, 1401-1402, gilded bronze relief<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Filippo Brunelleschi,\u00a0<em>Dome of Florence Cathedral<\/em>,\u00a0Santa Maria del Fiore, 1420-1436<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Masaccio,\u00a0<em>Tribute Money,<\/em>\u00a0Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, Italy, c. 1424-1427, fresco<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sandro Botticelli,\u00a0<em>Birth of Venus<\/em>, c. 1480, tempera on canvas<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Donatello di Niccol\u00f2 di Betto Bardi,\u00a0<em>David<\/em>,\u00a0c. 1440-1460, bronze<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 id=\"term-list-1\">Term List<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Renaissance<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Classical antiquity<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Humanism<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Quatrefoil<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Fresco<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Linear perspective<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Horizon line<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Vanishing point<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Orthogonal lines<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Freestanding<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Tempera<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Neo-Platonism<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Contrapposto<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Naturalism<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2 id=\"florence-in-the-early-renaissance\">Florence in the Early Renaissance<\/h2>\r\nThe Renaissance really gets going in the early years of the 15th century in Florence. In this period, which we call the Early Renaissance, Florence is not a city in the unified country of Italy, as it is now. Instead, Italy was divided into many city-states (Florence, Milan, Venice etc.), each with its own government (some were ruled by despots, and others were republics).\r\n<h3 id=\"the-florentine-republic\">The Florentine Republic<\/h3>\r\nWe normally think of a Republic as a government where everyone votes for representatives who will represent their interests to the government (think of the\u00a0United States pledge of allegiance: \u201cand to the republic for which it stands\u2026\u201d). However, Florence was a Republic in the sense that there was a constitution which limited the power of the nobility (as well as laborers) and ensured that no one person or group could have complete political control (so it was far from our ideal of everyone voting, in fact a very small percentage of the population had the vote). Political power resided in the hands of middle-class merchants, a few wealthy families (such as the Medici, important art patrons who would later rule Florence) and the powerful guilds.\r\n<h3 id=\"why-did-the-renaissance-begin-in-florence\">Why did the Renaissance begin in Florence?<\/h3>\r\nThere are several answers to that question: Extraordinary wealth accumulated in Florence during this period among a growing middle and upper class of merchants and bankers. With the accumulation of wealth often comes a desire to use it to enjoy the pleasures of life\u2014and not an exclusive focus on the hereafter.\r\n\r\nFlorence saw itself as the ideal city state, a place where the freedom of the individual was guaranteed, and where many citizens had the right to participate in the government (this must have been very different than living in the Duchy of Milan, for example, which was ruled by a succession of Dukes with absolute power). In 1400 Florence was engaged in a struggle with the Duke of Milan. The Florentine people feared the loss of liberty and respect for individuals that was the pride of their Republic.\r\n\r\nLuckily for Florence, the Duke of Milan caught the plague and died in 1402. Then, between 1408 and 1414 Florence was threatened once again, this time by the King of Naples, who also died before he could successfully conquer Florence. And in 1423 the Florentine people prepared for war against the son of the Duke of Milan who had threatened them earlier. Again, luckily for Florence, the Duke was defeated in 1425. The Florentine citizens interpreted these military \u201cvictories\u201d as signs of God\u2019s favor and protection. They imagined themselves as the \u201cNew Rome\u201d\u2014in other words, as the heirs to the Ancient Roman Republic, prepared to sacrifice for the cause of freedom and liberty.\r\n\r\nThe Florentine people were very proud of their form of government in the early 15th century. A republic is, after all, a place that respects the opinions of individuals, individualism was a critical part of the Humanism that thrived in Florence in the 15th century.\r\n<h2 id=\"what-was-humanism\">What was humanism?<\/h2>\r\nHumanism was the educational and intellectual program of the Renaissance. Grounded in Latin and Greek literature, it developed first in Italy in the middle of the fourteenth century and then spread to the rest of Europe by the late fifteenth century. This program, called the\u00a0<em>studia humanitatis,<\/em>\u00a0or the humanities, was thought to teach citizens the morals necessary to lead an active, virtuous life, which its proponents contrasted with the contemplative life of ascetic monks and scholars. As a product of the Italian\u00a0city-state republics, humanism was a system born in the city and made for the citizen. Although\u00a0scholars in earlier centuries had embraced classical learning, humanists rediscovered many lost texts, read them with a critical and secular eye, and, through them, forged a new mentality that shaped Italian and European society from approximately the mid-14th to the mid-17th centuries.\r\n<h2 id=\"renaissance-humanism-bridging-the-classical-with-the-christian\">Renaissance Humanism: Bridging the Classical with the Christian<\/h2>\r\nIn the new cultural context of 15<sup>th<\/sup> century Florence, humanism became a defining concept. Humanism celebrates the potential of humanity. Renaissance humanism combined elements of the Classical world with Christian theology. The presence of humanism along with a revised interest in naturalism and an increase in learning lead to a shift in artistic styles.\r\n\r\nThe video, \u201cHow to Recognize Italian Renaissance Art,\u201d explores the stylistic shift from the medieval style to the early Renaissance through the work of artist Giotto di Bondone and into the High Renaissance with Michelangelo.\r\n<h2 id=\"how-to-recognize-italian-renaissance-art-with-giotto\">How to Recognize Italian Renaissance Art with Giotto<\/h2>\r\nConsidered an unrivaled painter in his own time, Giotto had a profound influence on the transition between the medieval and the Gothic in Italy.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=6YiL9MNyGKE\r\n<h2 id=\"a-culture-of-competition\">A Culture of Competition<\/h2>\r\nWith Italy as a series of competing city-states during the Renaissance, the culture of competition extended to competition between city-states, leading families, and even between artists. As any competitive person knows, good competition makes you want to improve and ultimately, to win.\r\n\r\nDuring the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, cathedrals were symbols of civic pride. As cities competed for political, cultural, and economic power on the Italian peninsula, the construction of main cathedrals served as symbols of strength. This is the case with Santa Maria del Fiore, the spiritual heart of Florence. Competitions took place for several architectural and artistic components of Santa Maria del Fiore, including its baptistry and for the roof.\r\n<h2 id=\"the-competition-panels-and-the-florentine-renaissance\">The Competition Panels and the Florentine Renaissance<\/h2>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=8qivmAur1-k\r\n<h2 id=\"filippo-brunelleschi-dome-of-the-cathedral-of-florence\">Filippo Brunelleschi, Dome of the Cathedral of Florence<\/h2>\r\nThe Dome of the Florence Cathedral represents the enormous ambition of Brunelleschi and of Florence in the 15th century.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=QCOQ7jDtkzU\r\n<h2 id=\"introducing-linear-perspective\">Introducing Linear Perspective<\/h2>\r\nLike almost all Renaissance artists, Filippo Brunelleschi mastered multiple mediums. Trained as a goldsmith and experienced in bronze and architecture, Brunelleschi was also a master draftsman. He excelled at drawing. Brunelleschi and his contemporary Masaccio began to work with the technique of linear perspective. Art historians believe linear perspective may have originated in the Ancient Greco-Roman world, with Ancient Roman wall paintings demonstrating the illusion of three-dimensional space. It\u2019s during the Renaissance that linear perspective is \u201cre-discovered.\u201d\r\n\r\nFirst, learn how linear perspective works. Then, see how Masaccio used linear perspective in his fresco painting of the <em>Tribute Money<\/em> in his work for the Brancacci Chapel in Florence.\r\n<h2 id=\"how-one-point-linear-perspective-works\">How one-point linear perspective works<\/h2>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=eOksHhQ8TLM\r\n<h2 id=\"masaccio-the-tribute-money-and-expulsion-in-the-brancacci-chapel\">Masaccio,\u00a0<em>The Tribute Money<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0<em>Expulsion<\/em>\u00a0in the Brancacci Chapel<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/chapol-smol-2-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/chapol-smol-2-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph showing exterior and interior views of a historic church. Exterior features a large brick facade with a simple rectangular shape, while interior displays colorful Renaissance frescoes with visitors observing artwork behind a marble balustrade.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1514\" \/><\/a> Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence (Italy) (left); Brancacci Chapel, with frescoes by Masaccio and Masolino, c. 1424-7, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence (Italy) (right) (photos: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/search\/?sort=date-taken-desc&amp;safe_search=1&amp;tags=masolino&amp;user_id=82032880%40N00&amp;view_all=1\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 <\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe\u00a0<em>Tribute Money<\/em>\u00a0is one of many frescoes painted by Masaccio (and another artist named Masolino (with later additions by Filippino Lippi) in the Brancacci chapel in Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence\u2014when you walk into the chapel, the fresco is on your upper left. All of the frescoes in the chapel tell the story of the life of St. Peter. The story of the\u00a0<em>Tribute Money<\/em>\u00a0is told in three separate scenes within the same fresco. This way of telling an entire story in one painting is called a continuous narrative.\r\n<h3 id=\"a-story-unfolds-and-a-miracle-is-performed\">A story unfolds and a miracle is performed<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/full-smol-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/full-smol-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Masaccio's Tribute Money depicting a biblical scene with Jesus and his disciples engaged in conversation, set against a backdrop of barren trees and architectural structures. The composition features detailed human figures in colorful robes, emphasizing interaction and narrative within a natural and built environment.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1111\" \/><\/a> Masaccio, <em>Tribute Money,<\/em> 1427, fresco (Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence) (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jHV1Qv\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 <\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn the\u00a0<em>Tribute Money<\/em>, a Roman tax collector (the figure in the foreground in a short orange tunic and no halo) demands tax money from Christ and the twelve apostles who don\u2019t have the money to pay.\r\n\r\nChrist (in the center, wearing a pinkish robe gathered in at the waist, with a blue toga-like wrap) points to the left, and says to Peter \u201cso that we may not offend them, go to the lake and throw out your line. Take the first fish you catch; open its mouth and you will find a four-drachma coin. Take it and give it to them for my tax and yours\u201d (Matthew 17:27).\u00a0Christ performed a miracle\u2014and the apostles have the money to pay the tax collector.\r\n\r\nIn the center of the fresco (scene 1), we see the tax collector demanding the money, and Christ instructing Peter. On the far left (scene 2), we see Peter kneeling down and retrieving the\u00a0money from the mouth of a fish, and on the far right (scene 3), St. Peter pays the tax collector.\u00a0In the fresco, the tax collector appears twice, and St. Peter appears three times (you can find them easily if you look for their clothing).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2230\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/christ-collector-smol.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/christ-collector-smol.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance-style painting depicting a group of men engaged in conversation, dressed in flowing robes and tunics with varied colors including pink, blue, orange, and red. The scene features detailed facial expressions and gestures, set against a natural background with trees and a cloudy sky.\" width=\"2230\" height=\"2226\" \/><\/a> Christ, apostles, and tax collector (detail), Masaccio, <em>Tribute Money<\/em>, c. 1427, fresco (Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence) (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jHV1RN\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/split-labeled-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/split-labeled-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Diagram of Tribute Money divided into three labeled scenes. Scene 1 shows a central figure surrounded by followers, scene 2 features a solitary figure kneeling, and scene 3 portrays two men shaking hands near an architectural structure.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1076\" \/><\/a> Masaccio, <em>Tribute Money<\/em>, 1427, fresco (Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence) (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jHV1Qv\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWe are so used to one moment appearing in one frame (think of a comic book, for example) that the unfolding of the story within one image (and out of order!) seems very strange to us. But with this technique (a continuous narrative)\u2014which was also used by the ancient Romans\u2014Masaccio is able to make an entire drama unfold on the wall of the Brancacci chapel.\r\n\r\nIn the central, first scene, the tax collector points down with his right hand, and holds his left palm open, impatiently insisting on the money from Christ and the apostles. He stands with his back to us, which helps to create\u00a0an illusion of three dimensional space in the image (a goal which was clearly important to Masaccio as he also employed both linear and atmospheric perspective to create an illusion of space). Like Donatello\u2019s\u00a0<em>St. Mark<\/em>\u00a0from Orsanmichele in Florence, he stands naturally, in contrapposto, with his weight on his left leg, and his right knee bent. The apostles (Christ\u2019s followers) look worried and anxiously watch to see what will happen. St. Peter (wearing a large deep orange colored toga draped over a blue shirt) is confused, as he seems to be questioning Christ and pointing over to the river, but he also looks like he is willing to believe Christ.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/full-arrows-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/full-arrows-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance fresco depicting a biblical scene with a group of men, some with halos, engaged in conversation near a building with arches. Orthogonal lines of linear perspective overlay the image gathering at the vanishing point of Christ.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1118\" \/><\/a> Linear perspective diagram, Masaccio, Tribute Money, c.1427, fresco (Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence) (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jHV1Qv\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>). Christ is the vanishing point. Note too, the use of atmospheric (aerial) perspective in the mountains in the distance.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe gestures and expressions\u00a0help to tell the story. Peter seems confused and points to the lake\u2014mirroring Christ\u2019s gesture;\u00a0the tax collector looks upset, and has his hand out insistently asking for the money\u2014he stands in contrapposto with\u00a0his back turned to us (contrapposto is a standing position, where the figure\u2019s weight is shifted to one leg). Only Christ is completely calm because he is performing a miracle.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/feet-detail-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/feet-detail-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Feet (detail), Masaccio, Tribute Money, c. 1427, showing the lower legs and feet of several figures standing. The figures wear robes in muted colors like blue, pink, and orange, with visible details of toes and folds in fabric.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"734\" \/><\/a> Feet (detail), Masaccio, <em>Tribute Money<\/em>, c. 1427, fresco (Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence) (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jHV1RN\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nLook down at the feet\u2014how the light travels through the figures, and is stopped when it encounters the figures. The figures cast shadows\u2014Masaccio is perhaps\u00a0the first artist since classical antiquity to paint cast shadows. What this\u00a0does is make the fresco so much more real\u2014it is as if the figures are truly standing out in a landscape, with the light coming from one direction, and the sun in the sky, hitting all the figures from the same side and casting shadows on the ground. For the first time since antiquity, there is almost a sense of weather.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=TPVeLWLbO9k\r\n<h2 id=\"humanism-made-visible\">Humanism Made Visible<\/h2>\r\nThe renewed interest in the Ancient Classical world transformed ideas about representing pictorial space. It also transformed the way the human body was represented. From paintings to sculptures, Ancient Classical ideas about heroic nudity, naturalism, and celebrating the human body combined with Christian iconography and Biblical narratives. Works like Botticelli\u2019s <em>Birth of Venus<\/em> and Donatello\u2019s <em>David<\/em> reveal the presence of humanist ideas made visible.\r\n<h2 id=\"sandro-botticelli-the-birth-of-venus\">Sandro Botticelli,\u00a0<em>The Birth of Venus<\/em><\/h2>\r\nA student of Fra Filippo Lippi, Sandro Botticelli was highly sought after by the elite families of Florence; he also decorated parts of the Sistine Chapel. That shell! That pose! That wind! So much in Botticelli\u2019s <em>The Birth of Venus<\/em> painting seems impossible, not least its divine beauty.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=K6PBfbkMzFU\r\n<h2 id=\"donatello-david\">Donatello,\u00a0<em>David<\/em><\/h2>\r\nAn Early Renaissance sculptor, Donatello\u2019s study of ancient Roman art informed the realistic anatomy and human character in his works. His nudity references classical antiquity, but David embodies the ideals and concerns of 15th-century Florence.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=0_p8USD0fjY\r\n<h3 id=\"the-study-of-anatomy.-picking-up-from-the-ancients\">The study of anatomy. Picking up from the ancients<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"892\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/donatello-david.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/donatello-david.jpg\" alt=\"Donatello's David bronze sculpture of a young shepherd boy in the nude except for sandals and a hat. David stands on the head of goliath while holding a sword. \" width=\"892\" height=\"2165\" \/><\/a> Donatello, <em>David<\/em>, 1440s, bronze, 158 cm (Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jjshsV\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWe can see from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/donatello-david\/\">Donatello\u2019s sculpture of\u00a0<em>David<\/em><\/a>\u2014with its careful depiction of bones and\u00a0muscles and\u00a0a nude\u00a0figure\u2014that the study of human anatomy was enormously important for\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/primer-italian-renaissance-art\/\">Renaissance artists<\/a>. They continued where the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek_intro\/\">ancient Greeks<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-ancient-roman-art\/\">Romans<\/a>\u00a0had left off, with an interest in\u00a0creating images of the human beings\u00a0where bodies moved in natural ways\u2014in correct proportion and feeling the pull of gravity.\r\n\r\nSculptures from ancient Greece and Rome reveal that classical artists closely observed the human body. Ancient\u00a0Greek and Roman artists focused their attention on youthful bodies in the prime of life.\u00a0Ancient sources indicate\u00a0these artists used models to help them study the details of the body in the way that it looked and moved.\u00a0These artists tried to show their viewers that they understood systems of muscles beneath the skin.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/14793036083_b787690b43_o-scaled.jpg\"><img src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/14793036083_b787690b43_o-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Detail of a classical relief sculpture featuring three human figures, one horse, and two dogs. One human figure is shown in the nude with an emphasis on anatomy and idealized forms. \" width=\"2560\" height=\"1440\" \/><\/a> An interest in human anatomy and ideal bodies can be seen in this ancient Greek sarcophagus. Hunting scene (detail),<em> The Alexander Sarcophagus<\/em>, c. 312 B.C.E., Pentelic marble and polychromy, found in Sidon, 195 x 318 x 167 cm (\u0130stanbul Archaeological Museums; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/oxdbfg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAn interest in human anatomy and ideal bodies can be seen in this ancient Greek sarcophagus. Hunting scene (detail),\u00a0<em>The Alexander Sarcophagus<\/em>, c. 312 B.C.E., Pentelic marble and polychromy, found in Sidon, 195 x 318 x 167 cm (\u0130stanbul Archaeological Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/oxdbfg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>,\u00a0CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)\r\n\r\nIn the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-the-middle-ages\/\">Middle Ages<\/a>, there was very little interest in the human body, which was seen as only a temporary vessel for the soul. The body was seen as sinful, the cause of temptation. In\u00a0the Old Testament, Adam and Eve eat the apple from the tree of knowledge, realize their nakedness, and cover themselves. Due to the nudity in this important story, Christians associated nudity with sin and the fall of humankind. Medieval images of naked bodies do not reflect close observation from real life or an understanding of the inner workings of bodies.\r\n<h3 id=\"dissection\">Dissection<\/h3>\r\nThe best way to learn human anatomy is not just to look at the outside of the body, but to study anatomy through dissection. Even though the Catholic Church prohibited dissection, artists and scientists performed dissection to better understand the body. Renaissance artists were anxious to gain specialized knowledge of the inner workings of the human body, which would allow them to paint and sculpt the body in many different positions.\r\n\r\nThe artists of the Early Renaissance used scientific tools (like\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-applications-of-linear-perspective\/\">linear perspective<\/a>\u00a0and the study of anatomy and geometry) to make their art more naturalistic, more like real life.\u00a0The term \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/naturalism\/\">naturalism<\/a>\u201d describes this effort.\r\n\r\nScientific naturalism allowed\u00a0artists in the Early Renaissance to begin to demand that society think of them as more than just skilled manual laborers. They argued that their work\u2014which was based on science and math\u2014was a product of their intellect just as much as their hands.\u00a0They wanted artists to have the same status as intellectuals and philosophers, unlike the medieval craftsmen that came before them.\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nDonatello\u2019s <em>David<\/em> stands around five feet tall. The <strong>scale<\/strong> of the sculpture makes it a large-scale bronze casting but not a monumental work. The <strong>scale<\/strong> is important for understanding the original purpose and location within the private home of the Medici family. Cast in bronze, the sculpture was polished and parts were gilded in gold leaf, such as the hair. Originally, the sculpture would have featured variation in both <strong>light<\/strong> and <strong>color<\/strong>. Comprised of both <strong>rectilinear<\/strong> and <strong>curvilinear forms<\/strong>, the <strong>composition<\/strong> of the sculpture operates on a vertical axis. The viewer\u2019s eye is kept within the sculpture by David\u2019s soft hat at the top, which angles downward along with his gaze. Following David\u2019s gaze, we look at his feet, where his left foot rests on the large head of Goliath. Thus, two faces bookend the <strong>composition<\/strong>: the young, beardless, <strong>idealized<\/strong> face of David and the older, lined and bearded <strong>veristic<\/strong> face of Goliath. The <strong>rectilinear form<\/strong> of the sword placed at a <strong>diagonal<\/strong> angle from David\u2019s hip further emphasizes the verticality of the sculpture and the eye\u2019s movement toward Goliath\u2019s decapitated head. Donatello highlights the dynamism of the human body by placing the <strong>figurative form<\/strong> of David in the <strong>contrapposto<\/strong> stance with David\u2019s weight resting on one engaged leg.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"contrapposto-explained\">Contrapposto explained<\/h2>\r\nThe ancient Greeks mastered the naturalistic representation of the human body, and the Renaissance revived it.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=5vK7Z2Odnc0\r\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-1\">Conclusion<\/h2>\r\nThe Early Renaissance was an optimistic time of cultural revival, particularly focusing on a resurgence of Ancient Greek and Roman ideas. Under the influence of the Classical past, people reconceptualized their place in the world and even their relationship to the divine. Humanism became a defining feature of the Renaissance. The foundational ideas and techniques that emerged in the Early Renaissance in Florence \u2013 linear perspective, naturalism, heroic nudity, contrapposto, humanism \u2013 all lay the groundwork for artists of the High Renaissance.\r\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-1\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\r\nThe following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Renaissance Humanism: Bridging the Classical with the Christian<\/li>\r\n \t<li>A Culture of Competition<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Introducing Linear Perspective<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Humanism Made Visible<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Conclusion<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/florence-in-the-early-renaissance\/\">Florence in the Early Renaissance<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. John M. Hunt, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/humanism-renaissance-italy\/\">Humanism in renaissance Italy<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 1, 2021.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/giotto\/\">Giotto<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/how-to-recognize-italian-renaissance-art\/\">How to recognize Italian Renaissance art<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, February 2, 2017.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/filippo-brunelleschi-and-lorenzo-ghiberti-sacrifice-of-isaac\/\">Filippo Brunelleschi and Lorenzo Ghiberti,\u00a0<em>Sacrifice of Isaac<\/em>,<\/a>\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, May 5, 2021.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/brunelleschi-dome-of-the-cathedral-of-florence\/\">Filippo Brunelleschi, Dome of the Cathedral of Florence<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, January 16, 2026.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/how-one-point-linear-perspective-works\/\">How one-point linear perspective works<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 10, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/masaccio-the-tribute-money-in-the-brancacci-chapel\/\">Masaccio,\u00a0<em>The Tribute Money<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0<em>Expulsion<\/em>\u00a0in the Brancacci Chapel<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/sandro-botticelli\/\">Sandro Botticelli<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/sandro-botticelli-the-birth-of-venus\">Sandro Botticelli,\u00a0<em>The Birth of Venus<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 5, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-study-of-anatomy\/\">The study of anatomy<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/donatello\/\">Donatello<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Heather Graham, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/donatello-david\/\">Donatello,\u00a0<em>David<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 18, 2025.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/contrapposto\/\">Contrapposto explained<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 16, 2015.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-1\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\n<p>The Renaissance is defined as the rebirth of the Classical Antiquity of Ancient Greece and Rome during the period of c.1400-1600. The Renaissance began in Florence, Italy and spread across Europe. As Italy emerged from the medieval period, artists like Giotto di Bondone were transitioning from the Italo-Byzantine medieval style to early Renaissance concepts. Artists, including Giotto, Brunelleschi, Donatello, and Botticelli, were all living and working around Florence. Florence was a remarkable city during the late 14th and early 15th centuries for its culture of competition and its strong patronage of the arts. As you read and watch the content, pay close attention to the role of the patron and the purpose competition served in the early Renaissance. Some of the most famous artists of this time competed against one another to earn commissions.<\/p>\n<p>As part of the early Renaissance, the technique of linear perspective emerged to create the illusion of three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional surface. From the early Renaissance until the late 19<sup>th<\/sup> century, linear one-point perspective will be the dominant technique for representing pictorial space in two-dimensional artworks.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-1\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Giotto Di Bondone,\u00a0<em>Lamentation<\/em>, Arena Chapel,\u00a0Padua, Italy, c. 1305, fresco<\/li>\n<li>Filippo Brunelleschi,\u00a0<em>Sacrifice of Isaac<\/em>, competition panel for the east doors of the Florence Baptistery, 1401-1402, gilded bronze relief<\/li>\n<li>Lorenzo Ghiberti,\u00a0<em>Sacrifice of Isaac<\/em>, competition panel for the east doors of the Florence Baptistery, 1401-1402, gilded bronze relief<\/li>\n<li>Filippo Brunelleschi,\u00a0<em>Dome of Florence Cathedral<\/em>,\u00a0Santa Maria del Fiore, 1420-1436<\/li>\n<li>Masaccio,\u00a0<em>Tribute Money,<\/em>\u00a0Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, Italy, c. 1424-1427, fresco<\/li>\n<li>Sandro Botticelli,\u00a0<em>Birth of Venus<\/em>, c. 1480, tempera on canvas<\/li>\n<li>Donatello di Niccol\u00f2 di Betto Bardi,\u00a0<em>David<\/em>,\u00a0c. 1440-1460, bronze<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"term-list-1\">Term List<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Renaissance<\/li>\n<li>Classical antiquity<\/li>\n<li>Humanism<\/li>\n<li>Quatrefoil<\/li>\n<li>Fresco<\/li>\n<li>Linear perspective<\/li>\n<li>Horizon line<\/li>\n<li>Vanishing point<\/li>\n<li>Orthogonal lines<\/li>\n<li>Freestanding<\/li>\n<li>Tempera<\/li>\n<li>Neo-Platonism<\/li>\n<li>Contrapposto<\/li>\n<li>Naturalism<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"florence-in-the-early-renaissance\">Florence in the Early Renaissance<\/h2>\n<p>The Renaissance really gets going in the early years of the 15th century in Florence. In this period, which we call the Early Renaissance, Florence is not a city in the unified country of Italy, as it is now. Instead, Italy was divided into many city-states (Florence, Milan, Venice etc.), each with its own government (some were ruled by despots, and others were republics).<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-florentine-republic\">The Florentine Republic<\/h3>\n<p>We normally think of a Republic as a government where everyone votes for representatives who will represent their interests to the government (think of the\u00a0United States pledge of allegiance: \u201cand to the republic for which it stands\u2026\u201d). However, Florence was a Republic in the sense that there was a constitution which limited the power of the nobility (as well as laborers) and ensured that no one person or group could have complete political control (so it was far from our ideal of everyone voting, in fact a very small percentage of the population had the vote). Political power resided in the hands of middle-class merchants, a few wealthy families (such as the Medici, important art patrons who would later rule Florence) and the powerful guilds.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"why-did-the-renaissance-begin-in-florence\">Why did the Renaissance begin in Florence?<\/h3>\n<p>There are several answers to that question: Extraordinary wealth accumulated in Florence during this period among a growing middle and upper class of merchants and bankers. With the accumulation of wealth often comes a desire to use it to enjoy the pleasures of life\u2014and not an exclusive focus on the hereafter.<\/p>\n<p>Florence saw itself as the ideal city state, a place where the freedom of the individual was guaranteed, and where many citizens had the right to participate in the government (this must have been very different than living in the Duchy of Milan, for example, which was ruled by a succession of Dukes with absolute power). In 1400 Florence was engaged in a struggle with the Duke of Milan. The Florentine people feared the loss of liberty and respect for individuals that was the pride of their Republic.<\/p>\n<p>Luckily for Florence, the Duke of Milan caught the plague and died in 1402. Then, between 1408 and 1414 Florence was threatened once again, this time by the King of Naples, who also died before he could successfully conquer Florence. And in 1423 the Florentine people prepared for war against the son of the Duke of Milan who had threatened them earlier. Again, luckily for Florence, the Duke was defeated in 1425. The Florentine citizens interpreted these military \u201cvictories\u201d as signs of God\u2019s favor and protection. They imagined themselves as the \u201cNew Rome\u201d\u2014in other words, as the heirs to the Ancient Roman Republic, prepared to sacrifice for the cause of freedom and liberty.<\/p>\n<p>The Florentine people were very proud of their form of government in the early 15th century. A republic is, after all, a place that respects the opinions of individuals, individualism was a critical part of the Humanism that thrived in Florence in the 15th century.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"what-was-humanism\">What was humanism?<\/h2>\n<p>Humanism was the educational and intellectual program of the Renaissance. Grounded in Latin and Greek literature, it developed first in Italy in the middle of the fourteenth century and then spread to the rest of Europe by the late fifteenth century. This program, called the\u00a0<em>studia humanitatis,<\/em>\u00a0or the humanities, was thought to teach citizens the morals necessary to lead an active, virtuous life, which its proponents contrasted with the contemplative life of ascetic monks and scholars. As a product of the Italian\u00a0city-state republics, humanism was a system born in the city and made for the citizen. Although\u00a0scholars in earlier centuries had embraced classical learning, humanists rediscovered many lost texts, read them with a critical and secular eye, and, through them, forged a new mentality that shaped Italian and European society from approximately the mid-14th to the mid-17th centuries.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"renaissance-humanism-bridging-the-classical-with-the-christian\">Renaissance Humanism: Bridging the Classical with the Christian<\/h2>\n<p>In the new cultural context of 15<sup>th<\/sup> century Florence, humanism became a defining concept. Humanism celebrates the potential of humanity. Renaissance humanism combined elements of the Classical world with Christian theology. The presence of humanism along with a revised interest in naturalism and an increase in learning lead to a shift in artistic styles.<\/p>\n<p>The video, \u201cHow to Recognize Italian Renaissance Art,\u201d explores the stylistic shift from the medieval style to the early Renaissance through the work of artist Giotto di Bondone and into the High Renaissance with Michelangelo.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"how-to-recognize-italian-renaissance-art-with-giotto\">How to Recognize Italian Renaissance Art with Giotto<\/h2>\n<p>Considered an unrivaled painter in his own time, Giotto had a profound influence on the transition between the medieval and the Gothic in Italy.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"How to recognize Italian Renaissance art\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/6YiL9MNyGKE?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"a-culture-of-competition\">A Culture of Competition<\/h2>\n<p>With Italy as a series of competing city-states during the Renaissance, the culture of competition extended to competition between city-states, leading families, and even between artists. As any competitive person knows, good competition makes you want to improve and ultimately, to win.<\/p>\n<p>During the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, cathedrals were symbols of civic pride. As cities competed for political, cultural, and economic power on the Italian peninsula, the construction of main cathedrals served as symbols of strength. This is the case with Santa Maria del Fiore, the spiritual heart of Florence. Competitions took place for several architectural and artistic components of Santa Maria del Fiore, including its baptistry and for the roof.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"the-competition-panels-and-the-florentine-renaissance\">The Competition Panels and the Florentine Renaissance<\/h2>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"The Competition Panels and the Florentine Renaissance\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/8qivmAur1-k?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"filippo-brunelleschi-dome-of-the-cathedral-of-florence\">Filippo Brunelleschi, Dome of the Cathedral of Florence<\/h2>\n<p>The Dome of the Florence Cathedral represents the enormous ambition of Brunelleschi and of Florence in the 15th century.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"Filippo Brunelleschi, The Dome of Florence Cathedral\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/QCOQ7jDtkzU?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"introducing-linear-perspective\">Introducing Linear Perspective<\/h2>\n<p>Like almost all Renaissance artists, Filippo Brunelleschi mastered multiple mediums. Trained as a goldsmith and experienced in bronze and architecture, Brunelleschi was also a master draftsman. He excelled at drawing. Brunelleschi and his contemporary Masaccio began to work with the technique of linear perspective. Art historians believe linear perspective may have originated in the Ancient Greco-Roman world, with Ancient Roman wall paintings demonstrating the illusion of three-dimensional space. It\u2019s during the Renaissance that linear perspective is \u201cre-discovered.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>First, learn how linear perspective works. Then, see how Masaccio used linear perspective in his fresco painting of the <em>Tribute Money<\/em> in his work for the Brancacci Chapel in Florence.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"how-one-point-linear-perspective-works\">How one-point linear perspective works<\/h2>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-4\" title=\"How one-point linear perspective works\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/eOksHhQ8TLM?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"masaccio-the-tribute-money-and-expulsion-in-the-brancacci-chapel\">Masaccio,\u00a0<em>The Tribute Money<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0<em>Expulsion<\/em>\u00a0in the Brancacci Chapel<\/h2>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/chapol-smol-2-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/chapol-smol-2-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Photograph showing exterior and interior views of a historic church. Exterior features a large brick facade with a simple rectangular shape, while interior displays colorful Renaissance frescoes with visitors observing artwork behind a marble balustrade.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1514\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence (Italy) (left); Brancacci Chapel, with frescoes by Masaccio and Masolino, c. 1424-7, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence (Italy) (right) (photos: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/search\/?sort=date-taken-desc&amp;safe_search=1&amp;tags=masolino&amp;user_id=82032880%40N00&amp;view_all=1\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 <\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The\u00a0<em>Tribute Money<\/em>\u00a0is one of many frescoes painted by Masaccio (and another artist named Masolino (with later additions by Filippino Lippi) in the Brancacci chapel in Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence\u2014when you walk into the chapel, the fresco is on your upper left. All of the frescoes in the chapel tell the story of the life of St. Peter. The story of the\u00a0<em>Tribute Money<\/em>\u00a0is told in three separate scenes within the same fresco. This way of telling an entire story in one painting is called a continuous narrative.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"a-story-unfolds-and-a-miracle-is-performed\">A story unfolds and a miracle is performed<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/full-smol-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/full-smol-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Masaccio's Tribute Money depicting a biblical scene with Jesus and his disciples engaged in conversation, set against a backdrop of barren trees and architectural structures. The composition features detailed human figures in colorful robes, emphasizing interaction and narrative within a natural and built environment.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1111\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Masaccio, <em>Tribute Money,<\/em> 1427, fresco (Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence) (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jHV1Qv\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0 <\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In the\u00a0<em>Tribute Money<\/em>, a Roman tax collector (the figure in the foreground in a short orange tunic and no halo) demands tax money from Christ and the twelve apostles who don\u2019t have the money to pay.<\/p>\n<p>Christ (in the center, wearing a pinkish robe gathered in at the waist, with a blue toga-like wrap) points to the left, and says to Peter \u201cso that we may not offend them, go to the lake and throw out your line. Take the first fish you catch; open its mouth and you will find a four-drachma coin. Take it and give it to them for my tax and yours\u201d (Matthew 17:27).\u00a0Christ performed a miracle\u2014and the apostles have the money to pay the tax collector.<\/p>\n<p>In the center of the fresco (scene 1), we see the tax collector demanding the money, and Christ instructing Peter. On the far left (scene 2), we see Peter kneeling down and retrieving the\u00a0money from the mouth of a fish, and on the far right (scene 3), St. Peter pays the tax collector.\u00a0In the fresco, the tax collector appears twice, and St. Peter appears three times (you can find them easily if you look for their clothing).<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2230px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/christ-collector-smol.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/christ-collector-smol.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance-style painting depicting a group of men engaged in conversation, dressed in flowing robes and tunics with varied colors including pink, blue, orange, and red. The scene features detailed facial expressions and gestures, set against a natural background with trees and a cloudy sky.\" width=\"2230\" height=\"2226\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Christ, apostles, and tax collector (detail), Masaccio, <em>Tribute Money<\/em>, c. 1427, fresco (Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence) (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jHV1RN\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/split-labeled-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/split-labeled-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Diagram of Tribute Money divided into three labeled scenes. Scene 1 shows a central figure surrounded by followers, scene 2 features a solitary figure kneeling, and scene 3 portrays two men shaking hands near an architectural structure.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1076\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Masaccio, <em>Tribute Money<\/em>, 1427, fresco (Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence) (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jHV1Qv\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>We are so used to one moment appearing in one frame (think of a comic book, for example) that the unfolding of the story within one image (and out of order!) seems very strange to us. But with this technique (a continuous narrative)\u2014which was also used by the ancient Romans\u2014Masaccio is able to make an entire drama unfold on the wall of the Brancacci chapel.<\/p>\n<p>In the central, first scene, the tax collector points down with his right hand, and holds his left palm open, impatiently insisting on the money from Christ and the apostles. He stands with his back to us, which helps to create\u00a0an illusion of three dimensional space in the image (a goal which was clearly important to Masaccio as he also employed both linear and atmospheric perspective to create an illusion of space). Like Donatello\u2019s\u00a0<em>St. Mark<\/em>\u00a0from Orsanmichele in Florence, he stands naturally, in contrapposto, with his weight on his left leg, and his right knee bent. The apostles (Christ\u2019s followers) look worried and anxiously watch to see what will happen. St. Peter (wearing a large deep orange colored toga draped over a blue shirt) is confused, as he seems to be questioning Christ and pointing over to the river, but he also looks like he is willing to believe Christ.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/full-arrows-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/full-arrows-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"A Renaissance fresco depicting a biblical scene with a group of men, some with halos, engaged in conversation near a building with arches. Orthogonal lines of linear perspective overlay the image gathering at the vanishing point of Christ.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1118\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Linear perspective diagram, Masaccio, Tribute Money, c.1427, fresco (Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence) (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jHV1Qv\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>). Christ is the vanishing point. Note too, the use of atmospheric (aerial) perspective in the mountains in the distance.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The gestures and expressions\u00a0help to tell the story. Peter seems confused and points to the lake\u2014mirroring Christ\u2019s gesture;\u00a0the tax collector looks upset, and has his hand out insistently asking for the money\u2014he stands in contrapposto with\u00a0his back turned to us (contrapposto is a standing position, where the figure\u2019s weight is shifted to one leg). Only Christ is completely calm because he is performing a miracle.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/feet-detail-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/feet-detail-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Feet (detail), Masaccio, Tribute Money, c. 1427, showing the lower legs and feet of several figures standing. The figures wear robes in muted colors like blue, pink, and orange, with visible details of toes and folds in fabric.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"734\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Feet (detail), Masaccio, <em>Tribute Money<\/em>, c. 1427, fresco (Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence) (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jHV1RN\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Look down at the feet\u2014how the light travels through the figures, and is stopped when it encounters the figures. The figures cast shadows\u2014Masaccio is perhaps\u00a0the first artist since classical antiquity to paint cast shadows. What this\u00a0does is make the fresco so much more real\u2014it is as if the figures are truly standing out in a landscape, with the light coming from one direction, and the sun in the sky, hitting all the figures from the same side and casting shadows on the ground. For the first time since antiquity, there is almost a sense of weather.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-5\" title=\"Paying tribute, Masaccio at the Brancacci Chapel (The Tribute Money and The Expulsion)\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/TPVeLWLbO9k?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"humanism-made-visible\">Humanism Made Visible<\/h2>\n<p>The renewed interest in the Ancient Classical world transformed ideas about representing pictorial space. It also transformed the way the human body was represented. From paintings to sculptures, Ancient Classical ideas about heroic nudity, naturalism, and celebrating the human body combined with Christian iconography and Biblical narratives. Works like Botticelli\u2019s <em>Birth of Venus<\/em> and Donatello\u2019s <em>David<\/em> reveal the presence of humanist ideas made visible.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"sandro-botticelli-the-birth-of-venus\">Sandro Botticelli,\u00a0<em>The Birth of Venus<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>A student of Fra Filippo Lippi, Sandro Botticelli was highly sought after by the elite families of Florence; he also decorated parts of the Sistine Chapel. That shell! That pose! That wind! So much in Botticelli\u2019s <em>The Birth of Venus<\/em> painting seems impossible, not least its divine beauty.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-6\" title=\"A celebration of beauty and love: Botticelli&#39;s Birth of Venus\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/K6PBfbkMzFU?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"donatello-david\">Donatello,\u00a0<em>David<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>An Early Renaissance sculptor, Donatello\u2019s study of ancient Roman art informed the realistic anatomy and human character in his works. His nudity references classical antiquity, but David embodies the ideals and concerns of 15th-century Florence.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-7\" title=\"Donatello, David\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/0_p8USD0fjY?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-study-of-anatomy.-picking-up-from-the-ancients\">The study of anatomy. Picking up from the ancients<\/h3>\n<figure style=\"width: 892px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/donatello-david.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/donatello-david.jpg\" alt=\"Donatello's David bronze sculpture of a young shepherd boy in the nude except for sandals and a hat. David stands on the head of goliath while holding a sword.\" width=\"892\" height=\"2165\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">Donatello, <em>David<\/em>, 1440s, bronze, 158 cm (Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jjshsV\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>We can see from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/donatello-david\/\">Donatello\u2019s sculpture of\u00a0<em>David<\/em><\/a>\u2014with its careful depiction of bones and\u00a0muscles and\u00a0a nude\u00a0figure\u2014that the study of human anatomy was enormously important for\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/primer-italian-renaissance-art\/\">Renaissance artists<\/a>. They continued where the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek_intro\/\">ancient Greeks<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-ancient-roman-art\/\">Romans<\/a>\u00a0had left off, with an interest in\u00a0creating images of the human beings\u00a0where bodies moved in natural ways\u2014in correct proportion and feeling the pull of gravity.<\/p>\n<p>Sculptures from ancient Greece and Rome reveal that classical artists closely observed the human body. Ancient\u00a0Greek and Roman artists focused their attention on youthful bodies in the prime of life.\u00a0Ancient sources indicate\u00a0these artists used models to help them study the details of the body in the way that it looked and moved.\u00a0These artists tried to show their viewers that they understood systems of muscles beneath the skin.<\/p>\n<figure style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/14793036083_b787690b43_o-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/72\/2026\/06\/14793036083_b787690b43_o-scaled-1.jpg\" alt=\"Detail of a classical relief sculpture featuring three human figures, one horse, and two dogs. One human figure is shown in the nude with an emphasis on anatomy and idealized forms.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1440\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-caption-text\">An interest in human anatomy and ideal bodies can be seen in this ancient Greek sarcophagus. Hunting scene (detail),<em> The Alexander Sarcophagus<\/em>, c. 312 B.C.E., Pentelic marble and polychromy, found in Sidon, 195 x 318 x 167 cm (\u0130stanbul Archaeological Museums; photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/oxdbfg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>An interest in human anatomy and ideal bodies can be seen in this ancient Greek sarcophagus. Hunting scene (detail),\u00a0<em>The Alexander Sarcophagus<\/em>, c. 312 B.C.E., Pentelic marble and polychromy, found in Sidon, 195 x 318 x 167 cm (\u0130stanbul Archaeological Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/oxdbfg\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">Steven Zucker<\/a>,\u00a0CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)<\/p>\n<p>In the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-the-middle-ages\/\">Middle Ages<\/a>, there was very little interest in the human body, which was seen as only a temporary vessel for the soul. The body was seen as sinful, the cause of temptation. In\u00a0the Old Testament, Adam and Eve eat the apple from the tree of knowledge, realize their nakedness, and cover themselves. Due to the nudity in this important story, Christians associated nudity with sin and the fall of humankind. Medieval images of naked bodies do not reflect close observation from real life or an understanding of the inner workings of bodies.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"dissection\">Dissection<\/h3>\n<p>The best way to learn human anatomy is not just to look at the outside of the body, but to study anatomy through dissection. Even though the Catholic Church prohibited dissection, artists and scientists performed dissection to better understand the body. Renaissance artists were anxious to gain specialized knowledge of the inner workings of the human body, which would allow them to paint and sculpt the body in many different positions.<\/p>\n<p>The artists of the Early Renaissance used scientific tools (like\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-applications-of-linear-perspective\/\">linear perspective<\/a>\u00a0and the study of anatomy and geometry) to make their art more naturalistic, more like real life.\u00a0The term \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/naturalism\/\">naturalism<\/a>\u201d describes this effort.<\/p>\n<p>Scientific naturalism allowed\u00a0artists in the Early Renaissance to begin to demand that society think of them as more than just skilled manual laborers. They argued that their work\u2014which was based on science and math\u2014was a product of their intellect just as much as their hands.\u00a0They wanted artists to have the same status as intellectuals and philosophers, unlike the medieval craftsmen that came before them.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Donatello\u2019s <em>David<\/em> stands around five feet tall. The <strong>scale<\/strong> of the sculpture makes it a large-scale bronze casting but not a monumental work. The <strong>scale<\/strong> is important for understanding the original purpose and location within the private home of the Medici family. Cast in bronze, the sculpture was polished and parts were gilded in gold leaf, such as the hair. Originally, the sculpture would have featured variation in both <strong>light<\/strong> and <strong>color<\/strong>. Comprised of both <strong>rectilinear<\/strong> and <strong>curvilinear forms<\/strong>, the <strong>composition<\/strong> of the sculpture operates on a vertical axis. The viewer\u2019s eye is kept within the sculpture by David\u2019s soft hat at the top, which angles downward along with his gaze. Following David\u2019s gaze, we look at his feet, where his left foot rests on the large head of Goliath. Thus, two faces bookend the <strong>composition<\/strong>: the young, beardless, <strong>idealized<\/strong> face of David and the older, lined and bearded <strong>veristic<\/strong> face of Goliath. The <strong>rectilinear form<\/strong> of the sword placed at a <strong>diagonal<\/strong> angle from David\u2019s hip further emphasizes the verticality of the sculpture and the eye\u2019s movement toward Goliath\u2019s decapitated head. Donatello highlights the dynamism of the human body by placing the <strong>figurative form<\/strong> of David in the <strong>contrapposto<\/strong> stance with David\u2019s weight resting on one engaged leg.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"contrapposto-explained\">Contrapposto explained<\/h2>\n<p>The ancient Greeks mastered the naturalistic representation of the human body, and the Renaissance revived it.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-8\" title=\"Contrapposto explained\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/5vK7Z2Odnc0?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-1\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n<p>The Early Renaissance was an optimistic time of cultural revival, particularly focusing on a resurgence of Ancient Greek and Roman ideas. Under the influence of the Classical past, people reconceptualized their place in the world and even their relationship to the divine. Humanism became a defining feature of the Renaissance. The foundational ideas and techniques that emerged in the Early Renaissance in Florence \u2013 linear perspective, naturalism, heroic nudity, contrapposto, humanism \u2013 all lay the groundwork for artists of the High Renaissance.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-1\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\n<p>The following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\n<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\n<li>Renaissance Humanism: Bridging the Classical with the Christian<\/li>\n<li>A Culture of Competition<\/li>\n<li>Introducing Linear Perspective<\/li>\n<li>Humanism Made Visible<\/li>\n<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\n<li>Conclusion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/florence-in-the-early-renaissance\/\">Florence in the Early Renaissance<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. John M. Hunt, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/humanism-renaissance-italy\/\">Humanism in renaissance Italy<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 1, 2021.<\/li>\n<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/giotto\/\">Giotto<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/how-to-recognize-italian-renaissance-art\/\">How to recognize Italian Renaissance art<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, February 2, 2017.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/filippo-brunelleschi-and-lorenzo-ghiberti-sacrifice-of-isaac\/\">Filippo Brunelleschi and Lorenzo Ghiberti,\u00a0<em>Sacrifice of Isaac<\/em>,<\/a>&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, May 5, 2021.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/brunelleschi-dome-of-the-cathedral-of-florence\/\">Filippo Brunelleschi, Dome of the Cathedral of Florence<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, January 16, 2026.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/how-one-point-linear-perspective-works\/\">How one-point linear perspective works<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 10, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/masaccio-the-tribute-money-in-the-brancacci-chapel\/\">Masaccio,\u00a0<em>The Tribute Money<\/em>\u00a0and\u00a0<em>Expulsion<\/em>\u00a0in the Brancacci Chapel<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/sandro-botticelli\/\">Sandro Botticelli<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/sandro-botticelli-the-birth-of-venus\">Sandro Botticelli,\u00a0<em>The Birth of Venus<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 5, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-study-of-anatomy\/\">The study of anatomy<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Smarthistory, \u201c<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artist\/donatello\/\">Donatello<\/a>,\u201d in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory.<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Dr. Heather Graham, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/donatello-david\/\">Donatello,\u00a0<em>David<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 18, 2025.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/contrapposto\/\">Contrapposto explained<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 16, 2015.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"menu_order":3,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"on","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-2895","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2895","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"version-history":[{"count":9,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2895\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":3507,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2895\/revisions\/3507"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/2895\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=2895"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=2895"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=2895"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1200\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=2895"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}