{"id":1946,"date":"2026-07-16T17:34:49","date_gmt":"2026-07-16T17:34:49","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/chapter\/romanesque-art-and-architecture\/"},"modified":"2026-07-27T17:40:34","modified_gmt":"2026-07-27T17:40:34","slug":"romanesque-art-and-architecture","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/chapter\/romanesque-art-and-architecture\/","title":{"raw":"Romanesque Art and Architecture","rendered":"Romanesque Art and Architecture"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-14\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\r\nThe later medieval period from c. 1000-1200 in Western Europe is known as the Romanesque. The Romanesque, which means \"Roman-like,\" returned to the architecture of Ancient Rome with its barrel and groin vaults dependent upon the rounded Roman arch. Concurrent to the Romanesque period, the Byzantine Empire was in its Middle Byzantium period (c. 853-1204) while a large portion of the Islamic World was under the Abbasid Caliphate. In Western Europe, the Romanesque period began toward the end of Ottonian reign. Most artworks during the Romanesque were in the service of religion, including large-scale cathedrals built as pilgrimage churches. The <em>Bayeux Tapestry<\/em> survives as one of the only secular artwork from the period.\r\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-14\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>Saint Sernin<\/em>, Toulouse, France, c. 1080\u20131120 with later additions<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Reliquary statue of Sainte-Foy<\/em> (Saint Faith), late 10th to early 11th century with later additions, gold, silver gilt, jewels, and cameos over a wooden core<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Bayeux tapestry<\/em>, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 id=\"term-list-14\">Term List<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Romanesque<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Pilgrimage<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Tympanum<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Historiated capital<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Relic<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Reliquary<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Mandorla<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Roman arch<\/li>\r\n \t<li>West fa\u00e7ade<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Crossing<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Barrel vault<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Latin cross plan<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Narthex<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Spolia<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Battle of Hastings<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Normandy<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Longship<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Anglo-Saxon<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2 id=\"romanesque-art-an-introduction\">Romanesque art, an introduction<\/h2>\r\n<h3 id=\"the-first-international-style-since-antiquity\">The first international style since antiquity<\/h3>\r\nThe term \u201cRomanesque,\u201d meaning in the manner of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-ancient-roman-art\/\">Romans<\/a>, was first coined in the early nineteenth century. Today it is used to refer to the period of European art from the eleventh century throughout the twelfth (with the exception of the region around Paris where the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gothic-architecture-an-introduction\/\">Gothic<\/a>\u00a0style emerged in the mid-twelfth century). In certain regions, such as central Italy, the Romanesque continued to survive into the thirteenth century. The Romanesque is the first international style in Western Europe since antiquity\u2014extending across the Mediterranean and as far north as Scandinavia. The transmission of ideas was facilitated by increased travel along the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/pilgrimage-routes-and-the-cult-of-the-relic\/\">pilgrimage routes<\/a>\u00a0to shrines such as Santiago de Compostela in Spain (a pilgrimage is a journey to a sacred place) or as a consequence of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/what-were-the-crusades-1-of-4\/\">crusades<\/a>\u00a0which passed through the territories of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/periods-of-the-byzantine-empire\/\">Byzantine empire<\/a>. There are, however, distinctive regional variants\u2014<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/romanesque-churches-tuscany\/\">Tuscan Romanesque art<\/a>\u00a0(in Italy) for example is very different from that produced in northern Europe.\r\n<h3 id=\"painting-sculpture-architecture\">Painting + sculpture + architecture<\/h3>\r\nThe relation of art to architecture\u2014especially church architecture\u2014is fundamental in this period. For example, wall-paintings may follow the curvature of the\u00a0apse\u00a0of a church as in the apse wall-painting from the church of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christ-in-majesty-sant-climent-taull\/\">Sant Climent in Ta\u00fcll<\/a>\u00a0(also known as Saint Clement), and the most important art form to emerge at this period was architectural sculpture\u2014with sculpture used to decorate churches built of stone.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1900\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1646\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/07\/autun-beth.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1900\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image356.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a large, ornate church entrance featuring a wide staircase, dark wooden double doors, and an intricately carved stone archway with religious figures and decorative patterns. A person stands at the base of the steps facing the entrance, highlighting the grand scale and detailed architectural elements of the historic structure.\" width=\"1646\" height=\"1361\" \/><\/a> Last Judgment Tympanum, c. 1130\u201346, Central Portal, West Fa\u00e7ade, Cathedral of St. Lazare, Autun, France (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/bNx4VX\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nMany sculptors may have begun their career as stone masons, and there is a remarkable coherence between architecture and sculpture in churches at this period. The two most important sculptural forms to emerge at this time were the tympanum (the lunette-shaped space above the entrance to a church), and the historiated capital (a capital incorporating a narrative element usually an episode from the Bible or the life of a saint). One of the most famous tympanums is on the west entrance to\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/last-judgment-tympanum-cathedral-of-st-lazare-autun-france\/\">Autun Cathedral<\/a>\u00a0which represents\u2014appropriately for this part of the church\u2014the Last Judgment. An inscription (<em>Gislebertus hoc fecit<\/em>\u201d \u201cGislebertus made me\u201d), at the base of the giant immobile figure of Christ at the center, records the name of the artist or head of the workshop which produced it, though it has been suggested that it may refer to the original patron who was responsible for bringing the\u00a0relics\u00a0of Lazurus to Autun in the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/carolingian-art-an-introduction\/\">Carolingian period<\/a>.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-influence-of-ancient-rome\">The influence of Ancient Rome<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1901\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"550\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/10\/SantPeredeRodes.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1901\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image357.jpeg\" alt=\"Bas-relief sculpture depicting three figures, two in a boat with oars and one standing on water, holding a book inscribed with Greek letters. Carving features detailed waves and fish below boat, with draped clothing and halos indicating biblical context.\" width=\"550\" height=\"719\" \/><\/a> Calling of St. Peter and St. Andrew, c. 1160, marble, Sant Pere de Rodes monastery, Spain (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:015_Aparici%C3%B3_de_Jes%C3%BAs_als_deixebles,_del_Mestre_de_Cabestany_(Museu_Frederic_Mar%C3%A8s,_Barcelona).jpg\">Enric<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOne influence on the Romanesque is, as the name implies, ancient Roman art\u2014especially sculpture\u2014which survived in large quantities particularly in southern Europe. This can be seen, for example, in a marble relief representing the calling of St. Peter and St. Andrew from the front\u00a0frieze\u00a0of the abbey church of Sant Pere de Rodes on the Catalonian coast. The imprint of the antique can be seen in the deep undercutting in the drapery folds, an effect achieved by the Roman device of the drill, and the individualization of the faces.\r\n\r\nClassical influence was also frequently mediated through an intermediary\u2014most importantly Byzantine art (especially textiles and painting), but also through earlier medieval styles which had absorbed elements of the classical tradition such as\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ottonian-art-an-introduction\/\">Ottonian art<\/a>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1902\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1791\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/002I_094_R_TC_46.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1902\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image358.jpeg\" alt=\"Medieval illuminated manuscript illustration depicting a bearded figure with a halo, possibly a prophet or saint, pointing at a green board with inscriptions while four men in colorful robes attentively listen. The scene includes symbolic animals like birds on a tree and various creatures on the ground, framed by an ornate floral border with vibrant blue, red, and gold colors.\" width=\"1791\" height=\"1533\" \/><\/a> <em>The Bury Bible<\/em>, c.1130\u201335, Bury St Edmunds, England, MS 2, fol. 94 (<a href=\"https:\/\/parker.stanford.edu\/parker\/catalog\/nm203xw8381\">Corpus Christi College<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe illustrations in\u00a0<em>The<\/em>\u00a0<em>Bury Bible<\/em>\u00a0have, for example, been convincingly compared to\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/Last-Supper-scaled.jpg\">Byzantine wall-paintings<\/a>\u00a0in a church at Asinou in Cyprus which suggests that its artist\u2014a certain Master Hugo (having the name of the artist is unusual during this period) had seen them or a similar source. Monasteries such as that of Bury St. Edmunds in East Anglia in England (where the\u00a0<em>Bury Bible<\/em>\u00a0was made) were important centers of production\u2014especially for the writing and decorating of manuscripts. The Bury Bible is a good example of the remarkable achievements of monastic scriptoria in the Romanesque period.\r\n\r\nMonasteries were not the only centers of production. Romanesque art is also associated with towns that were revived and expanded during this period\u2014for the first time since the fall of the Roman empire\u2014a consequence of broad economic expansion (examples include Assisi in Umbria with its Romanesque cathedral or the newly founded town of Puente La Reina in northern Spain on the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela).\r\n\r\nRomanesque art is for the most part religious in its imagery, but this is partly a matter of what has survived, and there are examples of secular art from the period. Unusual is a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/casket-with-troubadours\/\">casket<\/a>\u00a0in The British Museum, a product of Limoges craftsmanship, which is made of wood with\u00a0<em>champlev\u00e9<\/em>\u00a0enamels attached to it (produced by heating powdered glass set into groves hollowed out of bronze plate). This is decorated with scenes to do with courtly love inspired by troubadour poets from Provence.\r\n<h3 id=\"metalwork\">Metalwork<\/h3>\r\nThe distinction between the fine and decorative arts is one that emerges only in the Renaissance and does not apply at this earlier period. If anything the most highly valued works of art during the Romanesque period were objects of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/reframing-art-history\/medieval-materiality-mediterranean\/\">metalwork<\/a>\u00a0made from precious metals that were frequently produced to house relics (characteristically the body part of a saint, or\u2014in the case of Christ who, the faithful believe ascended to heaven\u2014objects associated with him such as fragments of the so-called true cross on which Christ was thought to have been crucified).\r\n\r\nAn example of this is the reliquary known as the\u00a0<em>Stavelot Triptych.<\/em>\u00a0It consists of a central panel flanked by side wings that can be closed, a design format derived from Byzantine art but made at the Benedictine monastery of Stavelot in the Mosan region in present day Belgium in the mid-twelfth century. The triptych was commissioned by the abbot, a man called Wibald, whom we know travelled extensively and who acquired, during a trip to Constantinople, the two Byzantine enamel plaques incorporated into the center of the triptych that contain what were believed to be fragments of the true cross.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1903\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1431\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/93248v_0001.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1903\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image359.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of an ornate triptych altarpiece featuring gold panels adorned with colorful gemstones and intricate religious iconography. Central panel displays a crucifixion scene with hinged doors revealing additional miniature religious figures, while side panels contain circular painted biblical scenes framed by elaborate gold designs.\" width=\"1431\" height=\"1154\" \/><\/a> Stavelot Triptych, c. 1156\u201358, gold and enamel, 48 x 66 cm open (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.themorgan.org\/objects\/item\/93248\">The Morgan Library and Museum<\/a>, New York)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"a-wall-painting-from-san-clemente-in-catalonia\">A wall painting from San Clemente in Catalonia<\/h3>\r\nThe apse wall-painting from the church of San Clemente is a good example of the Romanesque style. The church is situated in a remote valley in northern Catalonia (north-east Spain today) and is typical of the handsome stone-built churches which sprung up in this region in the Romanesque period. The painting would have been painted onto fresh plaster applied to the walls of the church (it was transferred for safekeeping to the Museum of Catalan Art in Barcelona early in the twentieth century). The painting is dominated by the giant figure of Christ in a mandorla (a halo around the body of a sacred person), represented as he will appear at the end of time as described in the Book of Revelation.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1904\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1700\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/MNAC1-copy.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1904\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image360.jpeg\" alt=\"A fresco painting depicting a central figure seated on a throne with a halo, holding a book and raising one hand in blessing, surrounded by four angels in an arched frame. The artwork features vibrant colors including blue, red, and gold, with Latin inscriptions and intricate detailing typical of medieval religious art.\" width=\"1700\" height=\"1416\" \/><\/a> Master of Ta\u00fcll, apse painting, Sant Clement in Ta\u00fcll, c. 1123 (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.museunacional.cat\/en\/colleccio\/apse-sant-climent-de-taull\/mestre-de-taull\/015966-000\">Museu Nacional d\u2019Art de Catalunya<\/a>\u00a0, Barcelona, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:(Barcelona)_Frescos_of_Sant_Climent_de_Ta%C3%BCll.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nChrist is represented characteristically out of scale to the other figures to indicate his status. His head is distorted, elongated and highly geometric, and he has piercing hypnotic eyes. To either side of him are written the Greek letters \u201calpha\u201d and \u201comega\u201d (the beginning and the end), and with one hand he gestures in blessing, while the other holds an open book with the words\u00a0<em>Ego sum lux mundi<\/em>\u00a0(I am the light of the world) inscribed on it. Below him is an equally elongated and distorted figure of the Virgin Mary who holds a chalice with Christ\u2019s blood, a representation of the Holy Grail which predates the earliest written description of the subject. Her presence in the scheme is symptomatic of the growing cult of the Virgin Mary at this period.\r\n\r\nIt would be just as much a mistake to regard the lack of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/naturalism\/\">naturalism<\/a>\u00a0found in this painting as indicating lack of artistic competence as it would be in a work by\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/pablo-picasso-les-demoiselles-davignon\/\">Picasso<\/a>. Rather it indicates that its artist (whose real name we do not know) is not interested in replicating external appearances but rather in conveying a sense of the sacred and communicating the religious teachings of the church. Picasso (who was brought up in Barcelona) greatly admired Catalonian Romanesque, and it is significant that later in his life he kept a poster of this painting in his studio in southern France. We live in a world saturated with images but in the Romanesque period people would rarely encounter them and an image such as this would have made an immense impression.\r\n<h2 id=\"romanesque-architecture-an-introduction\">Romanesque architecture, an introduction<\/h2>\r\nThe popularity of religious pilgrimages transformed church architecture in the Romanesque period.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=j7ZhVtK6g9A\r\n\r\nThe name gives it away\u2014Romanesque architecture is based on\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/roman-architecture\/\">Roman architectural<\/a>\u00a0elements. It is the rounded Roman arch that is the literal basis for structures built in this style.\r\n<h3 id=\"ancient-roman-ruins-with-arches\">Ancient Roman ruins (with arches)<\/h3>\r\nAll through the regions that were part of the Ancient Roman Empire are ruins of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/pont-du-gard\/\">Roman aqueducts<\/a>\u00a0and buildings, most of them exhibiting arches as part of the architecture (you may make the etymological leap that the two words\u2014arch and architecture\u2014are related, but the Oxford English Dictionary shows arch as coming from Latin\u00a0<em>arcus<\/em>, which defines the shape, while arch\u2014as in architect, archbishop, and archenemy\u2014comes from Greek\u00a0<em>arkhos<\/em>, meaning chief and\u00a0<em>ekton<\/em>\u00a0means builder).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1905\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1006\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Aix_dom_int_vue_cote-scaled.jpeg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1905\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image361.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate cathedral interior showcasing a high vaulted ceiling adorned with religious frescoes and intricate mosaics in gold and blue tones. Architectural features include arched windows, marble columns with striped patterns, and a large circular chandelier hanging above visitors admiring the historic space.\" width=\"1006\" height=\"1374\" \/><\/a> Interior of the Palatine Chapel of Charlemagne, Aachen, Germany, 792\u2013805 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Aix_dom_int_vue_cote.jpg\">Velvet<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWhen\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/charlemagne-part-1-of-2\/\">Charlemagne<\/a>\u00a0was crowned\u00a0Holy Roman Emperor\u00a0in 800 C.E., the remains of Roman civilization were seen all over the continent, and legends of the great empire would have been passed down through generations after the fall of Rome in the fifth century. So when Charlemagne wanted to unite his empire and validate his reign, he began building churches in the Roman style\u2014particularly the style of Christian Rome in the days of Constantine, the first Christian Roman emperor.\r\n\r\nAfter a gap of around two hundred years with no large building projects, the architects of Charlemagne\u2019s day looked to the arched, or arcaded, system seen in Christian Roman edifices as a model. It is a logical system of stresses and buttressing, which was fairly easily engineered for large structures, and it began to be used in gatehouses, chapels, and churches in Europe.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1906\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1429\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/50709931428_daac402b99_o-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1906\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image362.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a large Gothic-style cathedral with intricate stonework, tall spires, and a prominent central tower under a bright blue sky. The structure features arched windows, detailed carvings, and a well-maintained lawn in the foreground, highlighting historic architectural design.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"847\" \/><\/a> Gloucester Cathedral, begun 1089 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2kg4DUy\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThese early examples may be referred to as pre-Romanesque because, after a brief spurt of growth, the development of architecture again lapsed. As a body of knowledge was eventually re-developed, buildings became larger and more imposing. Examples of Romanesque cathedrals from the early\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-the-middle-ages\/\">Middle Ages<\/a>\u00a0(roughly 1000\u20131200) are solid, massive, impressive churches that are often still the largest structure in many towns.\r\n\r\nIn Britain, the Romanesque style became known as \u201cNorman\u201d because the major building scheme in the 11th and 12th centuries was instigated by William the Conqueror, who invaded Britain in 1066 from Normandy in northern France. (The Normans were the descendants of Norse, or north men (\u201cVikings\u201d) who had invaded this area over a century earlier.)\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/durham-cathedral\/\">Durham<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gloucester-cathedral\/\">Gloucester<\/a>\u00a0Cathedrals and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/southwell-minster\/\">Southwell Minster<\/a>\u00a0are excellent examples of churches in the Norman, or Romanesque style.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1907\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1429\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/50710670101_73a441b457_o-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1907\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image363.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a cathedral interior showcasing tall stone columns and vaulted ceilings with intricate arches. Stained glass windows at the far end allow colorful light to illuminate rows of wooden pews, highlighting architectural grandeur and historical design.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"804\" \/><\/a> Gloucester Cathedral, nave, begun 1089 (ceiling later) (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2kg8rui\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe arches that define the naves of these churches are well modulated and geometrically logical\u2014with one look you can see the repeating shapes, and proportions that make sense for an immense and weighty structure. There is a large arcade on the ground level made up of bulky piers or columns. The piers may have been filled with rubble rather than being solid, carved stone. Above this arcade is a second level of smaller arches, often in pairs with a column between the two. The next higher level was again proportionately smaller, creating a rational diminution of structural elements as the mass of the building is reduced.\r\n\r\nThe decoration is often quite simple, using geometric shapes rather than floral or curvilinear patterns. Common shapes used include diapers\u2014squares or lozenges\u2014and chevrons, which were zigzag patterns and shapes. Plain circles were also used, which echoed the half-circle shape of the ubiquitous arches.\r\n\r\nEarly Romanesque ceilings and roofs were often made of wood, as if the architects had not quite understood how to span the two sides of the building using stone, which created outward thrust and stresses on the side walls. This development, of course, didn\u2019t take long to manifest, and led from barrel vaulting (simple, semicircular roof vaults) to cross vaulting, which became ever more adventurous and ornate in the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gothic-architecture-an-introduction\/\">Gothic<\/a>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1908\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"729\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/50710668491_19c5db3af7_o.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1908\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image364.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Romanesque architectural details inside a historic stone building, featuring large rounded arches supported by thick columns and small paired windows above. The structure highlights intricate stone carvings, including decorative capitals and sculpted faces on column bases, with natural light filtering through tall windows.\" width=\"729\" height=\"688\" \/><\/a> Gloucester Cathedral, decorative carving on the nave arcade and triforium (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2kg8r1x\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"romanesque-architecture-basilica-of-saint-sernin\">Romanesque Architecture: Basilica of Saint-Sernin<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1909\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/2656770308_f763993cee_o.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1909\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image365.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a large, historic church interior featuring rows of wooden pews aligned along a central aisle leading to an ornate altar with golden decorations. Warm lighting from chandeliers and wall sconces highlights tall stone columns and high vaulted ceilings.\" width=\"870\" height=\"580\" \/><\/a> Saint Sernin, Toulouse, France, c. 1080\u20131120 with later additions (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/sacred_destinations\/2656770308\">Holly Hayes<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe political center of Toulouse, France today is Place du Capitole, an open city square to the east of a beautiful eighteenth-century neoclassical building. Two major north-south roads traverse the western side of this square, and the names of these two thoroughfares have much to say about the history of the city. The street on the southern end of the square \u2014 Rue de Sainte-Rome \u2014 is named after a long since destroyed thirteenth-century Dominican church, Sainte-Romain. The street that proceeds northwards from the northwest corner of Place du Capitole \u2014 Rue du Taur \u2014 whispers the smallest of hints as to the most important church in the city, Saint-Sernin.\r\n<h3 id=\"a-martyred-saint\">A martyred saint<\/h3>\r\nThis imposing Romanesque basilica was constructed in honor of Saint Sernin (Saturninus in Latin), the first bishop of Toulouse. He was born in the early third century in Greece, and was one of seven bishops that Pope Fabian sent to different parts of\u00a0Gaul\u00a0to actively preach the Christian gospels to the pagans who lived in those areas. Many stories that pertain to the early Christian martyrs are fantastical, and we should take Sernin\u2019s own narrative with the proverbial grain of salt.\r\n\r\nAccording to legend, when Sernin entered the city of Toulouse, all of the pagan idols \u2014 which hitherto had regularly spoken to their priests \u2014 suddenly and disturbingly fell into silence. One day in 257, a great group had gathered around an altar, and a man pointed to Sernin as the cause of this divine silence, exclaiming, \u201cThere is the one who preaches everywhere that our temples must be torn down, and who dares to call our gods devils! It is his presence that imposes silence on our oracles!\u201d Sernin was then chained to a nearby bull and drug through the city until his body was broken and skull crushed. His corpse was eventually deposited on a street that since those times has been called the\u00a0<em>Rue du Taur<\/em>, the Road of the Bull.\u00a0 A church appropriately called Notre Dame du Taur commemorates the spot where the bull finally deposited the lifeless body. About 300 meters further north is Saint-Sernin, the basilica where the martyred saint\u2019s bodily remains are purported to reside.\r\n<h3 id=\"a-pilgrimage-church\">A pilgrimage church<\/h3>\r\nBegun sometime around 1080 (approximately 825 years after the saint\u2019s death), Saint-Sernin was formally consecrated as a church about a century later. The opening centuries of the second millennium were a time of great\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/pilgrimage-routes-and-the-cult-of-the-relic\/\">religious pilgrimages<\/a>, and one of the most important pilgrimage sites for the Catholic faithful \u2014 then as now \u2014 is the cathedral of Saint James in Santiago de Compostela, a city in northern Spain. For the pilgrims commencing their journey in Italy, the path they travelled took them through the southern part of France, and one of the major stopping points on this section of the Santiago Trail \u2014 the Way of Saint James \u2014 was the city of Toulouse and the basilica of Saint-Sernin, the church that held the relics of one of the most famous martyred saints of the area.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1910\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"713\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1910\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image366.png\" alt=\"Map showing Way of St. James pilgrimage routes across France and Spain, highlighting the French Way leading to Santiago de Compostela. Key cities and towns are marked with black dots and labels, with red lines tracing multiple routes from Paris, Arles, and other locations converging towards Spain.\" width=\"713\" height=\"600\" \/> The Way of Saint James \u2014 routes from France (image:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Way_of_St._James#\/media\/File:French_Ways_of_St._James.svg\">Vivaelcelta<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nSaint-Sernin is an excellent example of a Romanesque pilgrimage church, a building that needed to accomplish two interrelated ends. First, the structure needed to provide a suitably inspiring shrine for the holy relics of the saint it was built to commemorate. Second, it needed to be large enough to accommodate the thousands of pilgrims who would arrive each day to pray before and venerate those relics. Fulfilling these two goals, Saint-Sernin is one of the best-preserved and perhaps the largest Romanesque churches in the world. Even almost 950 years after its construction was begun, it remains a religious structure that awes and inspires the pilgrims who still visit.\r\n\r\nThe Romanesque style is so called because the medieval architects who designed these buildings used a fundamentally Roman architectural language. Romanesque churches are notable for their thick walls with relatively few windows, Roman arches, barrel vaults, and the use of massive vaulting. In contract to the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gothic-architecture-an-introduction\/\">Gothic buildings<\/a>\u00a0that would become fashionable a couple of centuries later, Romanesque churches appear heavy and comparatively dark. Saint-Sernin is also an excellent example of a church with a Latin cross plan. A long central east-west nave is intersected by a shorter north-south transept, a shape that mimics the most recognizable symbol of the Christian faith.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1911\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"840\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1911\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image367.jpeg\" alt=\"Floor plan diagram of a cathedral highlighting architectural layout and key sections with color-coded areas: purple for nave with 12 bays, blue for transepts, pink for radiating chapels, green for ambulatory, and yellow for crossing. Structural components include aisles, labeled sections, a north directional arrow, and a scale bar indicating distances up to 30 meters.\" width=\"840\" height=\"600\" \/> Plan of Saint Sernin, Toulouse[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOne of the best ways to fully appreciate a medieval church is to stroll around its exterior. Indeed, during this circumnavigation, one is not only transported back in time, but also through time. It often took centuries to construct churches of the size and scale of Saint-Sernin. By walking around the exterior of these churches an observant visitor can clearly see shifting architectural styles and changing sculptural aesthetics. Although construction was begun on Saint-Sernin by about 1080, slight changes in the proportion of brick and stone used during the course of its construction suggest the church went through a number of different building campaigns from its genesis until its ultimate conclusion, perhaps as many as four. Romanesque (and Gothic) churches are often a negotiation between what was dreamed and what came to pass; the final church often looks different from its original architectural plan.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1912\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"848\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/05\/St_Sernin-overview.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1912\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image368.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a large historic brick church facade featuring a prominent circular stained glass window above three arched doorways. The structure includes vertical buttresses, small rectangular windows, and a few people and parked cars in front, highlighting its scale and architectural details.\" width=\"848\" height=\"600\" \/><\/a> Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France, c. 1080-1120 with later additions (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/guillermofdez\/3041169381\/\">Guillermo Fdez<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThis is evident when looking at the west fa\u00e7ade of the church (in medieval churches, this is commonly referred to as the westwork). Most churches during the late medieval period were constructed with a tower on both the north and south ends of the westwork, and the extensive and massive buttressing on the corners of the west fa\u00e7ade of the structure strongly indicate that such towers were part of the original plan of the church. In the absence of these vertical towers, the front of the church is instead dominated by its large central circular window, set into a shallow pointed arch recession. Underneath this window are five small Roman (round) arches that harmoniously frame the two large Roman arch entranceways. This central part of the fa\u00e7ade \u2014 from the large entrances to the circular window \u2014 is framed by the vertical buttresses on the left and right sides.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1913\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1429\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/05\/St_Sernin_Toulouse.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1913\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image369.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a historic church with a tall, ornate bell tower under a blue sky with scattered clouds. The structure features arched windows, detailed stonework, and a wrought iron fence in the foreground, highlighting architectural elements typical of Romanesque style.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"952\" \/><\/a> Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France, bell tower c. 1270-1470 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Exterior_of_Saint-Sernin#\/media\/File:St_Sernin_Toulouse.JPG\">Guimsou<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWalking from the front of the church along one of the sides brings into focus the large bell tower over the\u00a0crossing. The octagonal tower is made of five layered tiers that are capped by a spire. The first three tiers feature Roman arches and were likely begun in the twelfth century. The much later uppermost tiers date from about 1270 \u2014 nearly two centuries after construction the church first began \u2014 and feature Gothic pointed arches. The spire at the top was finally completed around 1470 and measures 213 feet (65 m) in height. The bell tower alone is a visual lesson in the shifting architectural styles in fashion over the four centuries of a church\u2019s construction.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1914\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1190\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/05\/6911530797_93839b0bed_o.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1914\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image370.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a historic Romanesque church with a tall, ornate bell tower under a clear blue sky. The building features rounded arches, detailed stonework, and symmetrical design, with shadows emphasizing architectural depth and a parked vehicle visible in the foreground.\" width=\"1190\" height=\"1000\" \/><\/a> Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France, apse and radiating chapels, c. 1080-1120 with later additions (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/pierre-selim\/6911530797\/in\/photolist-bD7bHm-bSe59a-XYo17M-cZgnN7-aqJFRU-bH73qa-bBPfu5-bSg9GH-bwKpj6-byetXm-bM8CSg-bye7o5-aDu2QN-dX8gfC-aESb9w-aFCKTn-aFCFKX-aFCKqk-bM9cW4-epd1Cx-dBmMoa-bDmrc3-bT2U8t-dX2tmc-bT2UUR\">Pierre-Selim<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIf the bell tower and its spire are the elements of the church that are most visible around the city of Toulouse, it is the architectural elements on the eastern side of the church \u2014 the apse end \u2014 that made Saint-Sernin famous. It was common during the medieval era for the apse of the church to have small chapels for the placement of holy relics where pilgrims could come to visit and venerate them. But in Saint-Sernin, the entire eastern end of the church \u2014 from the north transept, around the apse, and concluding on the southern transept \u2014 is filled with nine radiating chapels. Even from an exterior view, it is clear that one of the primary roles of this structure was to house relics for pilgrims to visit.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1915\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1000\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/05\/Nave_-_Basilique_Saint-Sernin_-_Alt1.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1915\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image371.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a long, vaulted church interior with rows of wooden pews aligned on both sides of a central aisle leading to an ornate altar. Warm lighting from wall-mounted chandeliers highlights stone arches and detailed ceiling fresco in the apse.\" width=\"1000\" height=\"1000\" \/><\/a> Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France, view of the nave toward the apse, c. 1080-1120 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Basilica_Saint-Sernin_nave#\/media\/File:Nave_-_Basilique_Saint-Sernin_-_Alt1.jpg\">PierreSelim<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"chapels-sculptures-and-the-tomb-of-a-saint\">Chapels, sculptures, and the tomb of a saint<\/h3>\r\nThe plan of the interior of the church reinforces this function. The large\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/blog.stephens.edu\/arh101glossary\/?glossary=barrel-vault\">barrel-vaulted<\/a>\u00a0central nave is flanked on each side by double side aisles. When standing in the nave the faithful look towards the same high altar that Pope Urban II consecrated on 24 May 1096.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1911\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"840\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1911\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image367.jpeg\" alt=\"Floor plan diagram of a cathedral highlighting architectural layout and key sections with color-coded areas: purple for nave with 12 bays, blue for transepts, pink for radiating chapels, green for ambulatory, and yellow for crossing. Structural components include aisles, labeled sections, a north directional arrow, and a scale bar indicating distances up to 30 meters.\" width=\"840\" height=\"600\" \/> Plan of Saint Sernin, Toulouse[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe nave is 69 feet in height and is twelve bays in length from the entrance (the narthex) to the crossing. Each bay is twice as wide as it is long. Harmoniously, these same proportions are mirrored by each of the double side aisles that flank the nave, thus creating a profound architectural unity. This unity is likewise reflected by the arches that separate the nave from the innermost side aisle and the arches in the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/blog.stephens.edu\/arh101glossary\/?glossary=triforium\">triforium<\/a>\u00a0that allow light to flood into the nave.\r\n\r\nIf the primary function of the nave was for the celebration of the Catholic mass, then the double side aisles allowed the throngs of pilgrims who arrived daily to visit the nine radiating chapels without interrupting any religious service in process. A pilgrim might enter the church, turn to their left, and then proceed down a side aisle and move along the transept. From there, they could worship and venerate at any of the nine radiating chapels and see the works of art located in the ambulatory. Of particular note is a large-scale relief of Christ in Majesty that dates from c. 1096. Jesus sits in a shallow\u00a0mandorla; he raises his right hand in a gesture of blessing while his left hand holds a gospel with the words\u00a0<em>Pax Vobis\u00a0<\/em>\u2014 \u201cPeace to You\u201d in Latin \u2014 inscribed on the pages. Symbols of the four gospel writers look towards Jesus from the four corners.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1916\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"637\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/05\/17089435580_8d8eeb0a9d_o.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1916\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image372.jpeg\" alt=\"A carved stone relief depicting a seated religious figure within an almond-shaped mandorla, surrounded by symbolic creatures including a lion, an ox, an eagle, and a human figure. The figure holds a book with inscribed letters and raises a hand in blessing, highlighting themes of divinity and authority in Christian iconography.\" width=\"637\" height=\"1000\" \/><\/a> Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France, Christ in Majesty relief, c. 1096 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/pistolero31\/17089435580\/\">Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Neupont<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe main attraction of the basilica, however, is the tomb of Saint Saturnin that is located on the inner part of the ambulatory. To reach this space, a pilgrim would enter through a doorway where the lintel was carved with the head of Christ flanked by two scallop shells, visual symbols for the pilgrimage trail to Santiago de Compostela. Immediately underneath this lintel \u2014 on the iron gate that serves as a barrier \u2014 are the words\u00a0<em>Non Est in Toto Sanctior Orbe Locus<\/em>; \u201cThere is no holier place on earth.\u201d\r\n\r\nSaint-Sernin also featured upper and lower crypts that could be visited while in the ambulatory, which contained various shrines and reliquaries. Concluding their visit, the traveling pilgrims would then walk along the side aisle opposite the one they had previously used and then exit the church.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1917\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"868\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1917\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image373.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate stone doorway featuring a barred gate and Latin inscription above the entrance. Decorative elements include two large carved shells and a central bust sculpture framed by intricate floral motifs.\" width=\"868\" height=\"710\" \/> Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France, entrance to the tomb of Saint Saturnin, c. 1080-1120 (photo: Dr. Bryan Zygmont, <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/saint-sernin\/\">Smarthistory<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"looking-to-saint-james\">Looking to Saint James<\/h3>\r\nWhile the Basilica of Saint-Sernin may have served as a kind of stopping point for pilgrims on the Way of Saint James, it became a kind of pilgrimage destination in its own right in the decades after its construction. Indeed, it is a near contemporary with the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela (c. 1078), and there is some disagreement about which church is older, as some architectural historians date the groundbreaking for Saint-Sernin to 1077. Regardless of which is older, there is one important note that is generally well accepted: there is clear relationship between the two buildings. Both are Latin cross in plan, and both feature nine radiating chapels on the eastern side of the church. In arriving in Santiago de Compostela, those pilgrims who had traveled together along the southern path of the Way of Saint James and had previously visited Saint-Sernin would have encountered a church that familiarly whispered to them.\r\n<h2 id=\"pilgrimage-routes-and-the-cult-of-the-relic\">Pilgrimage routes and the cult of the relic<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1918\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/l0mQAO-c.jpeg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1918\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image374.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a large Romanesque church interior featuring tall stone columns and rounded arches with alternating light and dark stone patterns. Rows of wooden chairs line the central aisle leading to an illuminated altar area, with two people walking toward it, highlighting the building's grand scale and architectural symmetry.\" width=\"870\" height=\"610\" \/><\/a> Basilica Sainte-Madeleine, V\u00e9zelay, France, dedicated 1104 (photo: Steven Zucker, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"the-end-of-the-world\">The end of the world<\/h3>\r\nY2K. The Rapture. 2012. For over a decade, speculation about the end of the world has run rampant\u2014all in conjunction with the arrival of the new millennium. The same was true for our religious European counterparts who, prior to the year 1000, believed the Second Coming of Christ was imminent, and the end was nigh.\r\n\r\nWhen the apocalypse failed to materialize in 1000, it was decided that the correct year must be 1033, a thousand years from the death of Jesus Christ, but then that year also passed without any cataclysmic event.\r\n\r\nJust how extreme the millennial panic was remains debated. It is certain that from the year 950 onwards, there was a significant increase in building activity, particularly of religious structures. There were many reasons for this construction boom beside millennial panic, and the building of monumental religious structures continued even as fears of the immediate end of time faded.\r\n\r\nNot surprisingly, this period also witnessed a surge in the popularity of the religious pilgrimage. A pilgrimage is a journey to a sacred place. These are acts of piety and may have been undertaken in gratitude for the fact that doomsday had not arrived, and to ensure salvation, whenever the end did come.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-pilgrimage-to-santiago-de-compostela\">The pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1919\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1429\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1919\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image375.jpeg\" alt=\"Map showing major pilgrimage routes across Western Europe, including countries like Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Germany, and Switzerland. Key cities and connections are marked with red and black lines, highlighting important hubs and cross-border links between countries.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"1006\" \/> Map of pilgrimage routes (image:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ways_of_St._James_in_Europe.png\">Manfred Zentgraf, Volkach, Germany<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.5\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.5<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nFor the average European in the 12th century, a pilgrimage to the Holy Land of Jerusalem was out of the question\u2014travel to West Asia was too far, too dangerous, and too expensive. Santiago de Compostela in Spain offered a much more convenient option.\r\n\r\nTo this day, hundreds of thousands of faithful travel the \u201cWay of Saint James\u201d to the Spanish city of Santiago de Compostela. They go on foot across Europe to a holy shrine where bones, believed to belong to Saint James, were unearthed. The Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela now stands on this site.\r\n\r\nThe pious of the Middle Ages wanted to pay homage to holy relics, and pilgrimage churches sprang up along the route to Spain. Pilgrims commonly walked barefoot and wore a scalloped shell, the symbol of Saint James (the shell\u2019s grooves symbolize the many roads of the pilgrimage).\r\n\r\nIn France alone, there were four main routes toward Spain. Le Puy, Arles, Paris, and V\u00e9zelay are the cities on these roads, and each contains a church that was an important pilgrimage site in its own right.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1920\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/09\/2559997691_d88a747ba7_o-copy-copy.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1920\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image376.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of a stone relief sculpture depicting two human figures carrying heavy loads on their backs. The sculpture features detailed carvings, including a circular emblem on the load of the right figure and an inscription above the figures.\" width=\"300\" height=\"472\" \/><\/a> Pilgrims from the tympanum of Cathedral of Saint Lazare, Autun (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4UdE8e\">Holly Hayes<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"why-make-a-pilgrimage\">Why make a pilgrimage?<\/h3>\r\nA pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela was an expression of Christian devotion, and it was believed that it could purify the soul and perhaps even produce miraculous healing benefits. A criminal could travel the \u201cWay of Saint James\u201d as an act of penance. For the everyday person, a pilgrimage was also one of the only opportunities to travel and see some of the world. It was a chance to meet people, perhaps even those outside one\u2019s own class. The purpose of pilgrimage may not have been entirely devotional.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-cult-of-the-relic\">The cult of the relic<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1921\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/2810884187_0d74bc6fbc_o.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1921\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image377.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate gold and jewel-encrusted statue seated on a detailed throne, displayed on a red pedestal. The statue features intricate craftsmanship with embedded gemstones and a reflective dark background highlighting its elaborate design and regal posture.\" width=\"300\" height=\"475\" \/><\/a> Reliquary of Saint Foy at Conque Abbey (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/5hovWt\">Holly Hayes<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nPilgrimage churches can be seen in part as popular destinations, a spiritual tourism of sorts for medieval travelers. Guidebooks, badges, and various souvenirs were sold. Pilgrims, though traveling light, would spend money in the towns that possessed important sacred relics.\r\n\r\nThe cult of relic was at its peak during the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-art\/\">Romanesque period<\/a>, from about 1000\u20131200. Relics are religious objects generally connected to a saint, or some other venerated person. A relic might be a body part, a saint\u2019s finger, a cloth worn by the Virgin Mary, or a piece of the True Cross.\r\n\r\nRelics are often housed in a protective container called a reliquary. Reliquaries are often quite opulent and can be encrusted with precious metals and gemstones given by the faithful. An example is the Reliquary of Saint Foy, located at Conques abbey on the pilgrimage route. It is said to hold a piece of the child martyr\u2019s skull. A large pilgrimage church might be home to one major relic, and dozens of lesser-known relics. Because of their sacred and economic value, every church wanted an important relic, and a black market boomed with fake and stolen goods.\r\n<h3 id=\"accommodating-crowds\">Accommodating crowds<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1922\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/09\/PortalSaintLazare-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1922\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image378.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a Romanesque church portal featuring intricately carved stone arches and a central wooden door. Detailed sculptures include biblical figures and decorative patterns, with a prominent statue positioned on a column in front of the door.\" width=\"870\" height=\"608\" \/><\/a> Portal, Cathedral of Saint Lazare, Autun, 12th century (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/jk4dMA\">Patrick<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nPilgrimage churches were constructed with some special features to make them particularly accessible to visitors. The goal was to get large numbers of people to the relics and out again without disturbing the Mass in the center of the church. A large portal that could accommodate the pious throngs was a prerequisite. Generally, these portals would also have an elaborate sculptural program, often portraying the Second Coming\u2014a good way to remind the weary pilgrim why they made the trip!\r\n\r\nA pilgrimage church generally consisted of a double aisle on either side of the nave (the wide hall that runs down the center of a church). In this way, the visitor could move easily around the outer edges of the church until reaching the smaller apsidioles or radiating chapels. These are small rooms generally located off the back of the church behind the altar where relics were often displayed. The faithful would move from chapel to chapel, venerating each relic in turn.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1923\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/375px-Plan-st-Sernin-Toulouse-copy.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1923\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image379.jpeg\" alt=\"Diagram of a church floor plan labeled with architectural elements including nave, aisles, apse, crossing, ambulatory, and radiating chapels. The layout highlights structural components with black dots representing columns and arrows indicating architectural components.\" width=\"300\" height=\"417\" \/><\/a> Saint Sernin, Toulouse (plan)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"thick-walls-small-windows\">Thick walls, small windows<\/h3>\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-architecture\/\">Romanesque churches<\/a>\u00a0were dark. This was in large part because of the use of stone barrel-vault construction. This system provided excellent acoustics and reduced fire danger. However, a barrel vault exerts continuous lateral (outward pressure) all along the walls that support the vault.\r\n\r\nThis meant the outer walls of the church had to be extra thick. It also meant that windows had to be small and few. When builders dared to pierce walls with additional or larger windows, they risked structural failure. Churches did collapse.\r\n\r\nLater, the masons of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gothic-architecture-an-introduction\/\">Gothic period<\/a>\u00a0replaced the barrel vault with the groin vault, which carries weight down to its four corners, concentrating the pressure of the vaulting, and allowing for much larger windows.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1924\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Tournus_-_Saint-Philibert_de_Tournus_Abbey_-_04-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1924\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image380.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph showing two views of a cathedral interior: a longitudinal view of nave with tall columns and arched ceilings on the left, and a ceiling view highlighting ribbed vaults and clerestory windows on the right. Both views emphasize architectural details, light filtering through windows, and structural elements typical of Gothic and Romanesque design.\" width=\"870\" height=\"290\" \/><\/a> Left: Nave, Tournus Cathedral, 11th century (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Tournus_-_Saint-Philibert_de_Tournus_Abbey_-_04.JPG\">Christophe.Finot<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>); right: Groin vaults, Robert de Luzarches, Thomas de Cormont, and Renaud de Cormont, Amiens Cathedral, begun 1220, Amiens, France (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/TBDexx\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"romanesque-art-church-and-reliquary-of-sainte-foy-france\">Romanesque Art: Church and Reliquary of Sainte-Foy, France<\/h2>\r\n<h3 id=\"on-the-road\">On the road<\/h3>\r\nImagine you pack up your belongings in a sack, tie on your cloak, and start off on a months-long journey through treacherous mountains, unpredictable weather and unknown lands. For the medieval pilgrim, life was a spiritual journey. Why did people in the Middle Ages take\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/pilgrimage-routes-and-the-cult-of-the-relic\/\">pilgrimages<\/a>? There are many reasons, but visiting a holy site meant being closer to God. And if you were closer to God in this life, you would also be closer to God in the next.\r\n<h3 id=\"a-romanesque-pilgrimage-church-saint-foy-conques\">A Romanesque pilgrimage church: Saint-Foy, Conques<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1925\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/SaintFoy.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1925\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image381.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a historic stone church with two tall spires and a smaller bell tower, surrounded by traditional slate-roofed buildings nestled in a green, forested hillside. The scene highlights architectural details of the church and the quaint village setting, emphasizing the contrast between man-made structures and natural landscape.\" width=\"870\" height=\"653\" \/><\/a> Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, Conques, France, c. 1050\u20131130 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/kTCD1\">jean-louis Zimmermann<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nLocated in Conques, the Church of Saint-Foy (Saint Faith) is an important pilgrimage church on the route to Santiago de Compostela in Northern Spain. It is also an abbey, meaning that the church was part of a monastery where monks lived, prayed and worked. Only small parts of the monastery have survived but the church remains largely intact. Although smaller churches stood on the site from the seventh century, the Church of Saint-Foy was begun in the eleventh century and completed in the mid-twelfth century. As a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-architecture\/\">Romanesque church<\/a>, it has a barrel-vaulted nave lined with arches on the interior.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1926\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/Conques_eglise_nef.jpeg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1926\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image382.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a Romanesque church interior featuring tall stone columns, rounded arches, and a central aisle leading to an altar with a crucifix. Natural light filters through arched windows, highlighting the architectural symmetry and spacious nave with wooden pews on both sides.\" width=\"870\" height=\"934\" \/><\/a> Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, Conques, France, c. 1050\u20131130 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Conques_eglise_nef.jpg\">Velvet<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIt is known as a pilgrimage church because many of the large churches along the route to Santiago de Compostela took a similar shape. The main feature of these churches was the cruciform plan. Not only did this plan take the symbolic form of the cross but it also helped control the crowds of pilgrims. In most cases, pilgrims could enter the western portal and then circulate around the church towards the apse at the eastern end. The apse usually contained smaller chapels, known as radiating chapels, where pilgrims could visit saint\u2019s shrines, especially the sanctuary of Saint Foy. They could then circulate around the ambulatory and out the transept, or crossing. This design helped to regulate the flow of traffic throughout the church although the intention and effective use of this design has been debated.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1927\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"582\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1927\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image383.jpeg\" alt=\"Floor plan diagram of a Romanesque cathedral highlighting architectural components such as nave, apse, ambulatory (shaded blue), and radiating chapels (shaded pink). Key labels include west portal, transept exit, and structural columns, illustrating spatial organization and circulation paths within the cathedral.\" width=\"582\" height=\"402\" \/> Plan, Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, Conques, France, c. 1050\u20131130 C.E. (<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150625184044\/http:\/www.learn.columbia.edu\/ma\/htm\/dj_roman\/ma_djr_image_sfoy_plan01.htm\">adapted<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"a-warning-in-stone-the-tympanum-of-the-last-judgment\">A warning in stone: The tympanum of the Last Judgment<\/h3>\r\nWhen a pilgrim arrived at Conques, they would probably head for the church to receive blessing. Yet before they got inside, an important message awaited them on the portals: the Last Judgment. This scene is depicted on the tympanum,\u00a0the central semi-circular relief carving above the central portal.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1928\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1249\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1928\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image384.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a Romanesque church facade featuring two tall, pointed towers with arched windows and a central section with a circular window above three smaller arched windows. The stone structure displays detailed carvings above the entrance and a clear blue sky background.\" width=\"1249\" height=\"2048\" \/> Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, Conques, France, c. 1050\u20131130 C.E. (photo:<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Saint_Faith_Abbey_Church_in_Conques_05.jpg\">Tournasol7<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn the center sits Christ as Judge, and he means business! He sits enthroned with his right hand pointing upwards to the saved while his left hand gestures down to the damned. This scene would have served as a reminder to those entering the Church of Saint-Foy about the joys of heaven and torments of hell. Immediately on Christ\u2019s right are Mary, Peter and possibly the founder of the monastery as well as an entourage of other\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/whos-who-how-to-recognize-saints-2\/\">saints<\/a>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1929\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/7621507888_2086f09a28_o.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1929\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image385.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a detailed stone tympanum above a church entrance, depicting religious scenes with multiple human figures arranged in horizontal registers. Central figure seated with a cross behind, surrounded by angels, apostles, and various narrative scenes carved in relief within an arched frame of weathered stone.\" width=\"870\" height=\"582\" \/><\/a> Last Judgment tympanum, Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, France, Conques, c. 1050\u20131130 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/cBudLq\">\u00d2me deu Teishen\u00e8ir<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nBelow these saints, a small arcade is covered by a pediment, meant to represent the House of Paradise. These are the blessed, those have been saved by Christ and who will remain in Paradise with him for eternity. At the center, we find Abraham and above him notice the outstretched hand of God, who beckons a kneeling Saint Faith (see image below).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1930\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/SainteFoyHand.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1930\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image386.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of a medieval stone relief sculpture depicting a series of religious figures arranged in arched niches with Latin inscriptions above and below. The relief features detailed carvings of robed individuals, some holding objects, with a central figure elevated above others, highlighting its significance in the composition.\" width=\"870\" height=\"576\" \/><\/a> The blessed in paradise, with the hand of God above beckoning Saint Foy (Saint Faith) (detail), Last Judgment tympanum, Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, France, Conques, c. 1050\u20131130 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/53kK4M\">Holly Hayes<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOn the other side of the pediment, a row of angels opens the graves of the dead. As the dead rise from their tombs, their souls will be weighed and they will be admitted to heaven or hell. This is the scene that we see right under Christ\u2019s feet\u2014you can see the clear division between a large doorway leading to Paradise and a terrifying mouth that leads the way to Hell.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1931\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/SainteFoyGates.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1931\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image387.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed stone relief sculpture depicting a biblical scene with multiple human and monstrous figures interacting, including a large creature with an open mouth on the right. Latin inscriptions run along top and bottom edges, with intricate carvings showing various postures and expressions, highlighting dramatic narrative elements.\" width=\"870\" height=\"568\" \/><\/a> The gates of heaven and the mouth of hell (detail), Last Judgment tympanum, Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, France, Conques, c. 1050\u20131130 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/5hsQL3\">Holly Hayes<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nInside Hell, things aren\u2019t looking very good. It is a chaotic, disorderly scene\u2014notice how different it looks from the right-hand side of the tympanum. There is also a small pediment in the lower register of Hell, where the Devil, just opposite to Abraham, reigns over his terrifying kingdom.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1932\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/SainteFoyHell.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1932\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image388.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed stone relief sculpture depicting a chaotic scene with numerous human and demonic figures engaged in various actions, representing a religious narrative. The carving features Latin inscriptions, layered composition with a large central demonic figure, and intricate expressions and gestures highlighting themes of torment and struggle.\" width=\"870\" height=\"686\" \/><\/a> Hell (detail), Last Judgment tympanum, Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, France, Conques, c. 1050\u20131130 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/cMfDE5\">ricardo<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe devil, like Christ, is also an enthroned judge, determining the punishments that await the damned according to the severity of their sins. In particular, to the\u00a0devil\u2019s left is a hanged man. This man is a reference to Judas, who hanged himself after betraying Christ. Just beyond Judas, a knight is tossed into the fires of Hell and above him, a gluttonous man is hung by his legs for his sins. Each of these sinners represents a type of sin to avoid, from adultery, to arrogance, even to the misuse of church offices. Indeed, this portal was not only a warning for pilgrims, but for the clergy who lived in Conques as well.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1933\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"555\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/SainteFoyHellDetail.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1933\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image389.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of a detailed stone relief sculpture depicting five grotesque, humanoid figures in a chaotic scene, possibly representing a religious narrative. The relief features intricate textures, exaggerated facial expressions, and a carved inscription along the bottom edge.\" width=\"555\" height=\"522\" \/><\/a> A gluttonous man, detail of the Last Judgment tympanum, Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, France, Conques, c. 1050\u20131130 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/cMfDE5\">ricardo<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"the-reliquary\">The reliquary<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1934\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"705\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/SainteFoyReliquary.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1934\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image390.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate medieval reliquary statue depicting a seated figure adorned with gold, jewels, and intricate metalwork. The figure holds two orbs and wears a crown, with detailed embellishments covering the robe and throne.\" width=\"705\" height=\"1219\" \/><\/a> Reliquary statue of Sainte-Foy (Saint Faith), late 10th to early 11th century with later additions, gold, silver gilt, jewels, and cameos over a wooden core, 33 1\/2 inches (Treasury, Sainte-Foy, Conques) (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/53a8EU\">Holly Hayes<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nPilgrims arriving in Conques had one thing on their mind: the reliquary of Saint Foy. This reliquary, or container holding the remains of a saint or holy person, was one of the most famous in all of Europe. So famous that it was originally located in a monastery in Agen but the monks at Conques plotted to steal it in order to attract more wealth and visitors. The reliquary at Conques held the remains of Saint Foy, a young Christian convert living in Roman-occupied France during the second century. At the age of twelve, she was condemned to die for her refusal to sacrifice to pagan gods, she is therefore revered\u00a0as a martyr, as\u00a0someone who dies for their faith. Saint Foy was a very popular saint in Southern France\u00a0and her relic\u00a0was extremely important to\u00a0the church;\u00a0bringing pilgrims and wealth to the small, isolated town of Conques.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1935\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"692\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/SainteFoyReliquaryHead.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1935\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image391.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate golden bust adorned with various colorful gemstones and intricate metalwork, set against a dark background. The bust features detailed craftsmanship with embedded jewels and decorative patterns.\" width=\"692\" height=\"708\" \/><\/a> Head (detail), Reliquary statue of Sainte-Foy (Saint Faith), late 10th to early 11th century with later additions, gold, silver gilt, jewels, and cameos over a wooden core, 33-1\/2 inches (Treasury, Sainte-Foy, Conques) (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/53a8Hs\">Holly Hayes<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWhile the date of the reliquary is unknown, Bernard of Angers first spoke it about in 1010. At first, Bernard was frightened that the statue was too beautiful stating, \u201cBrother, what do you think of this idol? Would Jupiter or Mars consider himself unworthy of such a statue?\u201d He was concerned about idolatry\u2014that pilgrims would begin to worship the jewel-encrusted reliquary rather than what that reliquary contained and represented, the holy figure of Saint Foy. Indeed, the gold and gem encrusted statue would been\u00a0quite a sight for the pilgrims.\u00a0Over time, travelers paid homage to Saint Foy by donating\u00a0gemstones for the reliquary so that her dress is\u00a0covered with agates, amethysts, crystals, carnelians, emeralds, garnets, hematite, jade, onyx, opals, pearls, rubies, sapphires, topazes, antique cameos and intaglios. Her face, which stares boldly at the viewer, is thought to have originally been the head of a Roman statue of a child. The reuse of older materials in new forms of art is known as spolia. Using spolia was not only practical but it made the object more important by associating it with the past riches of the Roman Empire.\r\n\r\nThe Church of Saint Foy at Conques provides an excellent example of Romanesque art and architecture. Although the monastery no longer survives, the church and treasury stand as a reminder of\u00a0the rituals of medieval faith, especially for pilgrims. Even today, people make the long trek to Conques to pay respect to Saint Foy. Every October, a great celebration and procession is held for Saint Foy, continuing a medieval tradition into present day devotion.\r\n<h2 id=\"romanesque-art-the-bayeux-tapestry\">Romanesque Art: The Bayeux Tapestry<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1936\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/bayeux-crowd-1.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1936\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image392.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of people viewing a section of the illuminated Bayeux Tapestry displayed in a museum setting. The tapestry depicts medieval scenes with labeled numbers, featuring figures in period clothing and architectural elements, illustrating historical events from the Norman Conquest.\" width=\"870\" height=\"463\" \/><\/a> Viewing the Bayeux tapestry at the Bayeux Tapestry Museum; Bayeux tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Museum; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/batigolix\/2727418995\/in\/photostream\/\">boris doesborg<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"the-invasion\">The invasion<\/h3>\r\nOn September 28, 1066, the tiny community of Pevensey (on the south-east coast of England), huddled inside the ruins of a late Roman fortification. They would soon be overwhelmed with the arrival of William, Duke of\u00a0Normandy, and an army intent on invasion. Thousands of\u00a0invaders had crossed the English Channel from Normandy on hundreds of open\u00a0longships\u00a0that were big enough to carry cavalry horses and the supplies needed to lay siege to the coastal cities guarding England.\r\n\r\nWilliam had been preparing for the invasion since the last\u00a0Anglo-Saxon\u00a0king of England, Edward the Confessor, had died without a direct heir months earlier.\r\n\r\nEdward had been succeeded by a newly appointed ruler, Harold Godwinson, but both William and the King of Norway, Harold Hardrada, also laid claim to the throne. Harold Hardrada had crossed the North Sea to invade near present-day Newcastle in the north of England, arriving at almost exactly the same time as William\u2019s army made land further south. Forced to defend two coasts almost three hundred miles apart in quick succession, Harold Godwinson succeeded in defeating the king of Norway, but fell on the field at the Battle of Hastings, just up the coast from Pevensey, shot through the eye with an arrow. Harold\u2019s sizeable army was no match for the mounted warriors William had brought from Normandy. His forces quickly marched west, to Dover and Canterbury, then east, leaving devastation in their wake. By Christmas, 1066, William the Conqueror had been crowned king of England, but facing a rebellion, he continued to\u00a0lay waste to a huge swath of the country before he had all of England firmly within his grasp.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-tapestry\">The Tapestry<\/h3>\r\nThe works of art and architecture made in the wake of this invasion testify to the power of art as a tool for colonization. Perhaps the most famous of these is the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-bayeux-tapestry\/\">Bayeux Tapestry<\/a>.\u00a0Within twenty years of the Norman Conquest of England, needle-workers embroidered dozens of scenes describing the invasion onto this 230-foot-long linen strip using wool and linen yarn. Between narrow upper and lower borders populated by animals, people and objects that act as a subtle commentary on the central narrative, a history of the Norman Conquest unscrolls from left to right, ending abruptly with a tattered, incomplete scene of mace-wielding Anglo-Saxon foot soldiers fleeing the victorious Normans. Embroidered Latin titles help to identify people, places and events.\r\n\r\nMeasuring twenty inches high and almost 230 feet in length, the Bayeux Tapestry commemorates a struggle for the throne of England between William, the Duke of\u00a0Normandy, and Harold, the Earl of Wessex. The year was 1066\u2014William invaded and successfully conquered England, becoming the first Norman King of England (he was also known as William the Conqueror).\r\n\r\nThe Bayeux Tapestry\u00a0consists of seventy-five scenes with Latin inscriptions (<em>tituli<\/em>)\u00a0depicting\u00a0the\u00a0events leading up to the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-art-of-conquest-in-england-and-normandy\/\">Norman conquest<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0culminating in the Battle of Hastings in 1066. The textile\u2019s end is now missing, but it most probably showed the coronation of William as King of England.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1937\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1432\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1937\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image393.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed embroidery panel from the Bayeux Tapestry depicts a man holding a falcon while seated on a horse. The scene uses muted earth tones with intricate stitching to illustrate medieval falconry and horseback riding.\" width=\"1432\" height=\"742\" \/> Falconer (detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry\u201411th century.\u00a0Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017\u2014La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAlthough it is called the Bayeux Tapestry, this commemorative work is not a true tapestry as the images are not woven into the cloth; instead, the imagery and inscriptions are embroidered using wool yarn sewed onto linen cloth.\r\n\r\nThe tapestry is sometimes viewed as a type of chronicle. However, the inclusion of episodes that do not relate to the historic events of the Norman Conquest complicate this categorization. Nevertheless, it presents a rich representation of a particular historic moment as well as providing an important visual source for eleventh-century textiles that have not survived into the twenty-first century.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1938\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2096\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1938\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image394.png\" alt=\"Tapestry embroidery depicting medieval ships with sailors engaged in various activities, showcasing detailed sails, rigging, and animal heads on the vessels' prows. The scene highlights maritime travel and naval elements from the historical period, with muted earth tones and stylized human figures.\" width=\"2096\" height=\"1108\" \/> Normans with horses on boats, crossing to England, in preparation for battle (detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry\u201411th century.\u00a0Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017\u2014La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Bayeux Tapestry was probably made in Canterbury around 1070. Because the tapestry was made within a generation of the Norman defeat of the\u00a0Anglo-Saxons, it is considered to be a somewhat accurate representation of events. Based on a few key pieces of evidence, art historians believe the patron was Odo, Bishop of Bayeux. Odo was the half-brother of William, Duke of Normandy. Furthermore, the tapestry favorably depicts the Normans in the events leading up to the battle of Hastings, thus presenting a Norman point of view.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1939\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1500\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1939\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image395.png\" alt=\"A photograph of a medieval embroidered tapestry depicting a battle scene with mounted soldiers wielding swords and shields. The tapestry features detailed patterns on horses and armor, with Latin inscriptions above and a muted color palette of blues, reds, and browns.\" width=\"1500\" height=\"1088\" \/> Bishop Odo rallying William the Conqueror\u2019s troops at the Battle of Hastings (detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nMost importantly, Odo appears in several scenes in the tapestry with the inscription ODO EPISCOPUS (abbreviated \u201cEPS\u201d in the image above), although he is only mentioned briefly in textual sources. By the late\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-the-middle-ages\/\">Middle Ages<\/a>, the tapestry was displayed at Bayeux Cathedral, which was built by Odo and dedicated in 1077, but its size and secular subject matter suggest that it may have been intended to be a secular hanging, perhaps in Odo\u2019s hall.\r\n\r\nWe do not know the identity of the artists who produced the tapestry. The high quality of the needlework suggests that Anglo-Saxon embroiderers produced the tapestry. At the time, Anglo-Saxon needlework was prized throughout Europe. This theory is supported by stylistic analysis of the depicted scenes, which draw from Anglo-Saxon drawing techniques. Many of the scenes are believed to have been adapted from images in manuscripts illuminated at Canterbury.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1940\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1216\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1940\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image396.png\" alt=\"Tapestry panel depicting a medieval battle scene with armored knights, one on horseback, engaged in combat. Text in Latin above figures identifies a key event, with detailed patterns on shields, weapons, and clothing highlighting historical warfare.\" width=\"1216\" height=\"1044\" \/> The death of King Harold at the Battle of Hastings (detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry\u201411th century.\u00a0Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017\u2014La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe artists skillfully organized the composition of the tapestry to lead the viewer\u2019s eye from one scene to the next and divided the compositional space into three horizontal zones. The main events of the story are contained within the larger middle zone. The upper and lower zones contain images of animals and people, scenes from\u00a0Aesop\u2019s Fables, and scenes of husbandry and hunting. At times the images in the borders interact with and draw attention to key moments in the narrative (as in the image above of the battle).\r\n\r\nThe seventy-five episodes depicted present a continuous narrative of the events leading up to the Battle of Hastings and the battle itself. \u00a0A continuous narrative presents multiple scenes of a narrative within a single frame and draws from manuscript traditions such as the scroll form. The subject matter of the tapestry, however, has more in common with ancient monumental decoration such as\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/column-of-trajan\/\">Trajan\u2019s Column<\/a>, which typically focused\u00a0on mythic and historical references.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1941\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1941\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image397-scaled.png\" alt=\"A medieval tapestry scene depicting several figures engaged in preparing food. The artwork features Latin inscriptions above the characters and is rendered in muted earth tones with detailed line work characteristic of historical embroidery.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1090\" \/> Servants preparing food (detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry\u201411th century.\u00a0Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017\u2014La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe embroiderers\u2019 attention to specific details provides important sources for scenes of eleventh-century life as well as objects that no longer survive. In one scene of\u00a0the Normans\u2019 first meal after reaching the shores of England, we see dining practices. We also see examples of armor used in the period\u00a0and battle preparations. To the left of the dining scene, servants prepare food over a fire and bake bread in an outdoor oven (above). Servants serve the food as the tapestry\u2019s assumed patron, Bishop Odo, blesses the meal (below).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1942\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1431\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1942\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image398.jpeg\" alt=\"A medieval embroidered tapestry scene depicting a banquet with several seated figures eating and drinking at a long, curved table, accompanied by a servant carrying a jug underneath. The scene includes Latin text above the figures and features detailed clothing and tableware in muted colors on a beige fabric background.\" width=\"1431\" height=\"635\" \/> The Normans\u2019 first meal in England, at the center is Bishop Odo, who gazes out as he offers a blessing over the cup in his hand.(detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry\u201411th century.\u00a0Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017\u2014La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nImmediately after dining, William and his half-brothers Odo and Robert meet for a war council. Preparations for battle flank both sides of the first meal episode (below).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1943\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2440\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1943\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image399.png\" alt=\"A medieval embroidered tapestry panel depicting a group of armed men preparing for war with some figures wielding weapons and others operating siege equipment. The scene includes Latin text labels and various animals, with a color palette dominated by earthy tones such as brown, beige, and dark red.\" width=\"2440\" height=\"1154\" \/> Preparations for war, including the building of a motte-and-bailey (detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry\u201411th century.\u00a0Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017\u2014La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nHere we see visual evidence of eleventh-century battle gear and the construction of a motte-and-bailey to protect the Normans\u2019 position. A\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/motte-and-bailey-castles\/\">motte-and-bailey<\/a>\u00a0is a fortification with a keep (tower) situated on a raised earthwork (motte), surrounded by an enclosed courtyard (bailey). Images of battle horns, shields, and arrows as crucial ammunition shed light on military provisions and tactics for the time period.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1944\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2498\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1944\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image400.png\" alt=\"A medieval embroidered tapestry depicting a mounted battle scene with knights in armor wielding lances and shields, accompanied by foot soldiers below. The artwork features detailed patterns on horses and armor, with Latin inscriptions and symbolic figures above the riders.\" width=\"2498\" height=\"1152\" \/> Cavalry and foot soldiers in battle (detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry\u201411th century.\u00a0Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017\u2014La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWilliam\u2019s tactical use of cavalry is displayed in the \u201cCavalry\u201d scene. The cavalry could advance quickly and easily retreat, which would scatter an opponent\u2019s defenses allowing the infantry to invade. It was a strong tactic that was flexible and intimidating. Although foot soldiers are included in the tapestry, the cavalry commands the scene, thus presenting the impression that the Normans were a cavalry-dominant army.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1945\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2158\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1945\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image401.png\" alt=\"A detailed section of the Bayeux Tapestry depicting a chaotic battle scene with armored knights on horseback engaged in combat, some horses rearing or falling. The scene features Latin text above, intricate patterns on armor, and various animals, highlighting medieval warfare and artistic embroidery techniques.\" width=\"2158\" height=\"1150\" \/> Wounded soldiers and horses (detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry\u201411th century.\u00a0Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017\u2014La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn addition to depicting military tactics used in the Norman Conquest, the scene also provides visual evidence for eleventh-century battle gear. Cavalrymen are shown wearing conical steel helmets with a protective nose plate, mail shirts, and carrying shields and spears whereas the foot soldiers are seen carrying spears and axes. Representations of the cavalry show that the soldiers were armored but the horses were not. The brutality of war is evident in the battle scenes. Figures of mortally wounded men and horses are strewn along the tapestry\u2019s lower zone as well as within the main central zone.\r\n<h3 id=\"weaving-a-norman-tale\">Weaving a Norman tale<\/h3>\r\nScholars have never pinned down where or by whom the embroidery was carried out, or where it was meant to be displayed\u2014a mystery compounded by the fact that this is the only storytelling textile strip of this sort preserved from the Middle Ages. In it, William is portrayed ordering his men to build a fleet of longships, stock them with arms and armor, food, wine, and horses, and set sail for England, where they feast, plan, and finally attack. The ensuing slaughter is unflinchingly rendered: in the lower border, dismembered bodies are stripped by battlefield looters. The style of the tapestry, with its gangly-limbed, beaky-nosed figures, agitated gestures, stolid drapery folds, abrupt changes in scale, and multicolored trees made of rubbery, interlaced fronds, has similarities to other works found on both sides of the Channel. Anglo-Saxon England and the Duchy of Normandy had been exchanging artwork, artists, clergy, and nobles well before the Conquest (their rulers were closely related\u2014King Edward the Confessor\u2019s mother, Emma of Normandy, was William the Conqueror\u2019s great aunt).\r\n\r\nIf we can\u2019t use style to judge where the tapestry was made, we can instead turn to the story, which displays an indisputably Norman bias, to identify its intended audience. Many medieval texts retold the events of the invasion from both the Anglo-Saxon and Norman perspectives, but Bishop Odo of Bayeux, William\u2019s half brother, figures prominently in the Bayeux tapestry, where he is shown blessing a feast on the eve of battle, advising William, and rallying the troops. It is likely, then, that Odo commissioned the tapestry to celebrate his brother\u2019s victory, and the tale that unfolds along its length highlights William\u2019s (and Odo\u2019s) valor and the supposed wrongdoings of Harold Godwinson, who is depicted swearing an oath to be William\u2019s\u00a0vassal, but then allowing himself to be crowned King of England. The tapestry completely ignores Harold\u2019s victory over the Norwegian king, instead focusing on events of interest to Normans.\r\n\r\nWhile the tapestry\u2019s renditions of ships, weapons, horses, feasts and buildings have been mined by historians for information about daily life and military campaigns, many details are doubtless the result of artistic license. Still, the tapestry showcases some important Norman innovations. After the feast presided over by Bishop Odo, the invaders are shown shoveling dirt onto a striped mound crowned by a structure labeled\u00a0<em>\u201cHesteng ceastra\u201d<\/em> (above). This is the castle of Hastings, one of several such castles (including one at Dover as well as the Tower of London) that William had built during and after his invasion. With these, he imported into England a type of defensive structure that was typical in Normandy and became essential for establishing control over his new English subjects.\r\n\r\nThe Bayeux Tapestry provides an excellent example of Anglo-Norman art. It serves as a medieval artifact that operates as art, chronicle, political propaganda, and visual evidence of eleventh-century mundane objects, all at a monumental scale. This astounding work continues to fascinate.\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nIn the detail scene of \u201cWounded soldiers and horses\u201d from the <em>Bayeux Tapestry,<\/em> the anonymous artists used around seven different <strong>colors<\/strong> of dyed wool yarn to embroider on linen. The white linen serves as the <strong>background<\/strong> for a dynamic scene that features the tumultuous twist and turn of the bodies of both horses and humans. The <em>Bayeux Tapestry<\/em> makes use of the <strong>register<\/strong> format of a horizontal band to unfold a narrative. Elements of the Hiberno-Saxon style from early medieval Anglo-Saxon England are present, particularly in the zoomorphic <strong>forms<\/strong> and interlacing <strong>lines<\/strong> and <strong>patterns<\/strong> in the horizontal panel above the central register. Despite a <strong>flat<\/strong> white <strong>background<\/strong>, the artists achieve <strong>depth<\/strong> in the <strong>pictorial space<\/strong> by <strong>overlapping<\/strong> the figures. <strong>Contour lines<\/strong> of different colors of yarn define the <strong>forms<\/strong> of horses, humans, and the outline of shields and weapons. The variety of yarn <strong>colors<\/strong> are also used to create the details of <strong>texture<\/strong> in the horse\u2019s fur, manes, and hooves. The overall dynamism of the <strong>composition<\/strong> with vertical, horizontal, and diagonal <strong>forms<\/strong> allows the viewer to \u201cread\u201d the piece along with its accompanying text from left to right. This successfully moves the viewer forward in time to match the narrative. The horizontal <strong>line<\/strong> that defines the lower boundary of the central panel also serves as a ground for the scene. The line anchors all the figures to a sense of \u201cearth.\u201d Meanwhile, the prone bodies of individuals and horses in the lowest section harken back to earlier conventions of the register in artmaking, such as the <em>Palette of King Narmer<\/em> from Ancient Egypt, where victims of war and destruction are seen underneath the feet of the victors. In this section, the bottom panel is designed to interact and relate to the <strong>composition<\/strong> of the central panel.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-14\">Conclusion<\/h2>\r\nThe Bayeux Tapestry is one of the few surviving secular works of art from the Romanesque period. Otherwise, religious art and architecture dominated the landscape of Western Europe in the period between 1000-1200 C. E. Pilgrimage churches, like the Basilica of Saint Sernin and the Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, led an economic revitalization of Europe in the later Middle Ages. Towns constructed pilgrimage churches to hold sacred relics with the hope of bringing visitors to their cities. Romanesque churches designed on a large scale to accommodate pilgrims; however, the Romanesque architectural style of round arches, barrel vaults, and thick walls meant these interior spaces were dark. In the mid-twelfth century, a new architectural style will introduce light into the design of the pilgrimage church: the Gothic.\r\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-14\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\r\nThe following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and are licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Conclusion<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Andreas Petzold, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-art\/\">Romanesque art, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Valerie Spanswick, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-architecture\/\">Romanesque architecture, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, May 13, 2025.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Bryan Zygmont, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/saint-sernin\/\">Basilica of Saint-Sernin<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, July 1, 2020.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Christine M. Bolli, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/pilgrimage-routes-and-the-cult-of-the-relic\/\">Pilgrimage routes and the cult of the relic<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Elisa Foster, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/church-and-reliquary-of-saintefoy-france\/\">Church and Reliquary of Sainte-Foy, France<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Diane Reilly, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-art-of-conquest-in-england-and-normandy\/\">The Art of Conquest in England and Normandy<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, May 5, 2017.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Kristine Tanton, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-bayeux-tapestry\/\">The Bayeux Tapestry<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-14\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\n<p>The later medieval period from c. 1000-1200 in Western Europe is known as the Romanesque. The Romanesque, which means &#8220;Roman-like,&#8221; returned to the architecture of Ancient Rome with its barrel and groin vaults dependent upon the rounded Roman arch. Concurrent to the Romanesque period, the Byzantine Empire was in its Middle Byzantium period (c. 853-1204) while a large portion of the Islamic World was under the Abbasid Caliphate. In Western Europe, the Romanesque period began toward the end of Ottonian reign. Most artworks during the Romanesque were in the service of religion, including large-scale cathedrals built as pilgrimage churches. The <em>Bayeux Tapestry<\/em> survives as one of the only secular artwork from the period.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-14\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Saint Sernin<\/em>, Toulouse, France, c. 1080\u20131120 with later additions<\/li>\n<li><em>Reliquary statue of Sainte-Foy<\/em> (Saint Faith), late 10th to early 11th century with later additions, gold, silver gilt, jewels, and cameos over a wooden core<\/li>\n<li><em>Bayeux tapestry<\/em>, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"term-list-14\">Term List<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Romanesque<\/li>\n<li>Pilgrimage<\/li>\n<li>Tympanum<\/li>\n<li>Historiated capital<\/li>\n<li>Relic<\/li>\n<li>Reliquary<\/li>\n<li>Mandorla<\/li>\n<li>Roman arch<\/li>\n<li>West fa\u00e7ade<\/li>\n<li>Crossing<\/li>\n<li>Barrel vault<\/li>\n<li>Latin cross plan<\/li>\n<li>Narthex<\/li>\n<li>Spolia<\/li>\n<li>Battle of Hastings<\/li>\n<li>Normandy<\/li>\n<li>Longship<\/li>\n<li>Anglo-Saxon<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"romanesque-art-an-introduction\">Romanesque art, an introduction<\/h2>\n<h3 id=\"the-first-international-style-since-antiquity\">The first international style since antiquity<\/h3>\n<p>The term \u201cRomanesque,\u201d meaning in the manner of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-ancient-roman-art\/\">Romans<\/a>, was first coined in the early nineteenth century. Today it is used to refer to the period of European art from the eleventh century throughout the twelfth (with the exception of the region around Paris where the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gothic-architecture-an-introduction\/\">Gothic<\/a>\u00a0style emerged in the mid-twelfth century). In certain regions, such as central Italy, the Romanesque continued to survive into the thirteenth century. The Romanesque is the first international style in Western Europe since antiquity\u2014extending across the Mediterranean and as far north as Scandinavia. The transmission of ideas was facilitated by increased travel along the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/pilgrimage-routes-and-the-cult-of-the-relic\/\">pilgrimage routes<\/a>\u00a0to shrines such as Santiago de Compostela in Spain (a pilgrimage is a journey to a sacred place) or as a consequence of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/what-were-the-crusades-1-of-4\/\">crusades<\/a>\u00a0which passed through the territories of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/periods-of-the-byzantine-empire\/\">Byzantine empire<\/a>. There are, however, distinctive regional variants\u2014<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/romanesque-churches-tuscany\/\">Tuscan Romanesque art<\/a>\u00a0(in Italy) for example is very different from that produced in northern Europe.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"painting-sculpture-architecture\">Painting + sculpture + architecture<\/h3>\n<p>The relation of art to architecture\u2014especially church architecture\u2014is fundamental in this period. For example, wall-paintings may follow the curvature of the\u00a0apse\u00a0of a church as in the apse wall-painting from the church of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christ-in-majesty-sant-climent-taull\/\">Sant Climent in Ta\u00fcll<\/a>\u00a0(also known as Saint Clement), and the most important art form to emerge at this period was architectural sculpture\u2014with sculpture used to decorate churches built of stone.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1900\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1900\" style=\"width: 1646px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2019\/07\/autun-beth.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1900\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image356.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a large, ornate church entrance featuring a wide staircase, dark wooden double doors, and an intricately carved stone archway with religious figures and decorative patterns. A person stands at the base of the steps facing the entrance, highlighting the grand scale and detailed architectural elements of the historic structure.\" width=\"1646\" height=\"1361\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image356.jpeg 1646w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image356-300x248.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image356-1024x847.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image356-768x635.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image356-1536x1270.jpeg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image356-65x54.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image356-225x186.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image356-350x289.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1646px) 100vw, 1646px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1900\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Last Judgment Tympanum, c. 1130\u201346, Central Portal, West Fa\u00e7ade, Cathedral of St. Lazare, Autun, France (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/bNx4VX\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Many sculptors may have begun their career as stone masons, and there is a remarkable coherence between architecture and sculpture in churches at this period. The two most important sculptural forms to emerge at this time were the tympanum (the lunette-shaped space above the entrance to a church), and the historiated capital (a capital incorporating a narrative element usually an episode from the Bible or the life of a saint). One of the most famous tympanums is on the west entrance to\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/last-judgment-tympanum-cathedral-of-st-lazare-autun-france\/\">Autun Cathedral<\/a>\u00a0which represents\u2014appropriately for this part of the church\u2014the Last Judgment. An inscription (<em>Gislebertus hoc fecit<\/em>\u201d \u201cGislebertus made me\u201d), at the base of the giant immobile figure of Christ at the center, records the name of the artist or head of the workshop which produced it, though it has been suggested that it may refer to the original patron who was responsible for bringing the\u00a0relics\u00a0of Lazurus to Autun in the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/carolingian-art-an-introduction\/\">Carolingian period<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-influence-of-ancient-rome\">The influence of Ancient Rome<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1901\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1901\" style=\"width: 550px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/10\/SantPeredeRodes.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1901\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image357.jpeg\" alt=\"Bas-relief sculpture depicting three figures, two in a boat with oars and one standing on water, holding a book inscribed with Greek letters. Carving features detailed waves and fish below boat, with draped clothing and halos indicating biblical context.\" width=\"550\" height=\"719\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image357.jpeg 550w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image357-229x300.jpeg 229w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image357-65x85.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image357-225x294.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image357-350x458.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 550px) 100vw, 550px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1901\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Calling of St. Peter and St. Andrew, c. 1160, marble, Sant Pere de Rodes monastery, Spain (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:015_Aparici%C3%B3_de_Jes%C3%BAs_als_deixebles,_del_Mestre_de_Cabestany_(Museu_Frederic_Mar%C3%A8s,_Barcelona).jpg\">Enric<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>One influence on the Romanesque is, as the name implies, ancient Roman art\u2014especially sculpture\u2014which survived in large quantities particularly in southern Europe. This can be seen, for example, in a marble relief representing the calling of St. Peter and St. Andrew from the front\u00a0frieze\u00a0of the abbey church of Sant Pere de Rodes on the Catalonian coast. The imprint of the antique can be seen in the deep undercutting in the drapery folds, an effect achieved by the Roman device of the drill, and the individualization of the faces.<\/p>\n<p>Classical influence was also frequently mediated through an intermediary\u2014most importantly Byzantine art (especially textiles and painting), but also through earlier medieval styles which had absorbed elements of the classical tradition such as\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ottonian-art-an-introduction\/\">Ottonian art<\/a>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1902\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1902\" style=\"width: 1791px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/002I_094_R_TC_46.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1902\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image358.jpeg\" alt=\"Medieval illuminated manuscript illustration depicting a bearded figure with a halo, possibly a prophet or saint, pointing at a green board with inscriptions while four men in colorful robes attentively listen. The scene includes symbolic animals like birds on a tree and various creatures on the ground, framed by an ornate floral border with vibrant blue, red, and gold colors.\" width=\"1791\" height=\"1533\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image358.jpeg 1791w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image358-300x257.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image358-1024x876.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image358-768x657.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image358-1536x1315.jpeg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image358-65x56.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image358-225x193.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image358-350x300.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1791px) 100vw, 1791px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1902\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>The Bury Bible<\/em>, c.1130\u201335, Bury St Edmunds, England, MS 2, fol. 94 (<a href=\"https:\/\/parker.stanford.edu\/parker\/catalog\/nm203xw8381\">Corpus Christi College<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The illustrations in\u00a0<em>The<\/em>\u00a0<em>Bury Bible<\/em>\u00a0have, for example, been convincingly compared to\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/10\/Last-Supper-scaled.jpg\">Byzantine wall-paintings<\/a>\u00a0in a church at Asinou in Cyprus which suggests that its artist\u2014a certain Master Hugo (having the name of the artist is unusual during this period) had seen them or a similar source. Monasteries such as that of Bury St. Edmunds in East Anglia in England (where the\u00a0<em>Bury Bible<\/em>\u00a0was made) were important centers of production\u2014especially for the writing and decorating of manuscripts. The Bury Bible is a good example of the remarkable achievements of monastic scriptoria in the Romanesque period.<\/p>\n<p>Monasteries were not the only centers of production. Romanesque art is also associated with towns that were revived and expanded during this period\u2014for the first time since the fall of the Roman empire\u2014a consequence of broad economic expansion (examples include Assisi in Umbria with its Romanesque cathedral or the newly founded town of Puente La Reina in northern Spain on the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela).<\/p>\n<p>Romanesque art is for the most part religious in its imagery, but this is partly a matter of what has survived, and there are examples of secular art from the period. Unusual is a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/casket-with-troubadours\/\">casket<\/a>\u00a0in The British Museum, a product of Limoges craftsmanship, which is made of wood with\u00a0<em>champlev\u00e9<\/em>\u00a0enamels attached to it (produced by heating powdered glass set into groves hollowed out of bronze plate). This is decorated with scenes to do with courtly love inspired by troubadour poets from Provence.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"metalwork\">Metalwork<\/h3>\n<p>The distinction between the fine and decorative arts is one that emerges only in the Renaissance and does not apply at this earlier period. If anything the most highly valued works of art during the Romanesque period were objects of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/reframing-art-history\/medieval-materiality-mediterranean\/\">metalwork<\/a>\u00a0made from precious metals that were frequently produced to house relics (characteristically the body part of a saint, or\u2014in the case of Christ who, the faithful believe ascended to heaven\u2014objects associated with him such as fragments of the so-called true cross on which Christ was thought to have been crucified).<\/p>\n<p>An example of this is the reliquary known as the\u00a0<em>Stavelot Triptych.<\/em>\u00a0It consists of a central panel flanked by side wings that can be closed, a design format derived from Byzantine art but made at the Benedictine monastery of Stavelot in the Mosan region in present day Belgium in the mid-twelfth century. The triptych was commissioned by the abbot, a man called Wibald, whom we know travelled extensively and who acquired, during a trip to Constantinople, the two Byzantine enamel plaques incorporated into the center of the triptych that contain what were believed to be fragments of the true cross.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1903\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1903\" style=\"width: 1431px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/93248v_0001.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1903\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image359.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of an ornate triptych altarpiece featuring gold panels adorned with colorful gemstones and intricate religious iconography. Central panel displays a crucifixion scene with hinged doors revealing additional miniature religious figures, while side panels contain circular painted biblical scenes framed by elaborate gold designs.\" width=\"1431\" height=\"1154\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image359.jpeg 1431w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image359-300x242.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image359-1024x826.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image359-768x619.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image359-65x52.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image359-225x181.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image359-350x282.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1431px) 100vw, 1431px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1903\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Stavelot Triptych, c. 1156\u201358, gold and enamel, 48 x 66 cm open (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.themorgan.org\/objects\/item\/93248\">The Morgan Library and Museum<\/a>, New York)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"a-wall-painting-from-san-clemente-in-catalonia\">A wall painting from San Clemente in Catalonia<\/h3>\n<p>The apse wall-painting from the church of San Clemente is a good example of the Romanesque style. The church is situated in a remote valley in northern Catalonia (north-east Spain today) and is typical of the handsome stone-built churches which sprung up in this region in the Romanesque period. The painting would have been painted onto fresh plaster applied to the walls of the church (it was transferred for safekeeping to the Museum of Catalan Art in Barcelona early in the twentieth century). The painting is dominated by the giant figure of Christ in a mandorla (a halo around the body of a sacred person), represented as he will appear at the end of time as described in the Book of Revelation.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1904\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1904\" style=\"width: 1700px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/MNAC1-copy.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1904\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image360.jpeg\" alt=\"A fresco painting depicting a central figure seated on a throne with a halo, holding a book and raising one hand in blessing, surrounded by four angels in an arched frame. The artwork features vibrant colors including blue, red, and gold, with Latin inscriptions and intricate detailing typical of medieval religious art.\" width=\"1700\" height=\"1416\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image360.jpeg 1700w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image360-300x250.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image360-1024x853.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image360-768x640.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image360-1536x1279.jpeg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image360-65x54.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image360-225x187.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image360-350x292.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1700px) 100vw, 1700px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1904\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Master of Ta\u00fcll, apse painting, Sant Clement in Ta\u00fcll, c. 1123 (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.museunacional.cat\/en\/colleccio\/apse-sant-climent-de-taull\/mestre-de-taull\/015966-000\">Museu Nacional d\u2019Art de Catalunya<\/a>\u00a0, Barcelona, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:(Barcelona)_Frescos_of_Sant_Climent_de_Ta%C3%BCll.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Christ is represented characteristically out of scale to the other figures to indicate his status. His head is distorted, elongated and highly geometric, and he has piercing hypnotic eyes. To either side of him are written the Greek letters \u201calpha\u201d and \u201comega\u201d (the beginning and the end), and with one hand he gestures in blessing, while the other holds an open book with the words\u00a0<em>Ego sum lux mundi<\/em>\u00a0(I am the light of the world) inscribed on it. Below him is an equally elongated and distorted figure of the Virgin Mary who holds a chalice with Christ\u2019s blood, a representation of the Holy Grail which predates the earliest written description of the subject. Her presence in the scheme is symptomatic of the growing cult of the Virgin Mary at this period.<\/p>\n<p>It would be just as much a mistake to regard the lack of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/naturalism\/\">naturalism<\/a>\u00a0found in this painting as indicating lack of artistic competence as it would be in a work by\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/pablo-picasso-les-demoiselles-davignon\/\">Picasso<\/a>. Rather it indicates that its artist (whose real name we do not know) is not interested in replicating external appearances but rather in conveying a sense of the sacred and communicating the religious teachings of the church. Picasso (who was brought up in Barcelona) greatly admired Catalonian Romanesque, and it is significant that later in his life he kept a poster of this painting in his studio in southern France. We live in a world saturated with images but in the Romanesque period people would rarely encounter them and an image such as this would have made an immense impression.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"romanesque-architecture-an-introduction\">Romanesque architecture, an introduction<\/h2>\n<p>The popularity of religious pilgrimages transformed church architecture in the Romanesque period.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Romanesque architecture explained\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/j7ZhVtK6g9A?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>The name gives it away\u2014Romanesque architecture is based on\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/roman-architecture\/\">Roman architectural<\/a>\u00a0elements. It is the rounded Roman arch that is the literal basis for structures built in this style.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"ancient-roman-ruins-with-arches\">Ancient Roman ruins (with arches)<\/h3>\n<p>All through the regions that were part of the Ancient Roman Empire are ruins of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/pont-du-gard\/\">Roman aqueducts<\/a>\u00a0and buildings, most of them exhibiting arches as part of the architecture (you may make the etymological leap that the two words\u2014arch and architecture\u2014are related, but the Oxford English Dictionary shows arch as coming from Latin\u00a0<em>arcus<\/em>, which defines the shape, while arch\u2014as in architect, archbishop, and archenemy\u2014comes from Greek\u00a0<em>arkhos<\/em>, meaning chief and\u00a0<em>ekton<\/em>\u00a0means builder).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1905\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1905\" style=\"width: 1006px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Aix_dom_int_vue_cote-scaled.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1905\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image361.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate cathedral interior showcasing a high vaulted ceiling adorned with religious frescoes and intricate mosaics in gold and blue tones. Architectural features include arched windows, marble columns with striped patterns, and a large circular chandelier hanging above visitors admiring the historic space.\" width=\"1006\" height=\"1374\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image361.jpeg 1006w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image361-220x300.jpeg 220w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image361-750x1024.jpeg 750w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image361-768x1049.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image361-65x89.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image361-225x307.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image361-350x478.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1006px) 100vw, 1006px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1905\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Interior of the Palatine Chapel of Charlemagne, Aachen, Germany, 792\u2013805 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Aix_dom_int_vue_cote.jpg\">Velvet<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>When\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/charlemagne-part-1-of-2\/\">Charlemagne<\/a>\u00a0was crowned\u00a0Holy Roman Emperor\u00a0in 800 C.E., the remains of Roman civilization were seen all over the continent, and legends of the great empire would have been passed down through generations after the fall of Rome in the fifth century. So when Charlemagne wanted to unite his empire and validate his reign, he began building churches in the Roman style\u2014particularly the style of Christian Rome in the days of Constantine, the first Christian Roman emperor.<\/p>\n<p>After a gap of around two hundred years with no large building projects, the architects of Charlemagne\u2019s day looked to the arched, or arcaded, system seen in Christian Roman edifices as a model. It is a logical system of stresses and buttressing, which was fairly easily engineered for large structures, and it began to be used in gatehouses, chapels, and churches in Europe.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1906\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1906\" style=\"width: 1429px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/50709931428_daac402b99_o-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1906\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image362.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a large Gothic-style cathedral with intricate stonework, tall spires, and a prominent central tower under a bright blue sky. The structure features arched windows, detailed carvings, and a well-maintained lawn in the foreground, highlighting historic architectural design.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"847\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image362.jpeg 1429w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image362-300x178.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image362-1024x607.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image362-768x455.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image362-65x39.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image362-225x133.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image362-350x207.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1429px) 100vw, 1429px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1906\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Gloucester Cathedral, begun 1089 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2kg4DUy\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>These early examples may be referred to as pre-Romanesque because, after a brief spurt of growth, the development of architecture again lapsed. As a body of knowledge was eventually re-developed, buildings became larger and more imposing. Examples of Romanesque cathedrals from the early\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-the-middle-ages\/\">Middle Ages<\/a>\u00a0(roughly 1000\u20131200) are solid, massive, impressive churches that are often still the largest structure in many towns.<\/p>\n<p>In Britain, the Romanesque style became known as \u201cNorman\u201d because the major building scheme in the 11th and 12th centuries was instigated by William the Conqueror, who invaded Britain in 1066 from Normandy in northern France. (The Normans were the descendants of Norse, or north men (\u201cVikings\u201d) who had invaded this area over a century earlier.)\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/durham-cathedral\/\">Durham<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gloucester-cathedral\/\">Gloucester<\/a>\u00a0Cathedrals and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/southwell-minster\/\">Southwell Minster<\/a>\u00a0are excellent examples of churches in the Norman, or Romanesque style.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1907\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1907\" style=\"width: 1429px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/50710670101_73a441b457_o-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1907\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image363.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a cathedral interior showcasing tall stone columns and vaulted ceilings with intricate arches. Stained glass windows at the far end allow colorful light to illuminate rows of wooden pews, highlighting architectural grandeur and historical design.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"804\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image363.jpeg 1429w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image363-300x169.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image363-1024x576.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image363-768x432.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image363-65x37.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image363-225x127.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image363-350x197.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1429px) 100vw, 1429px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1907\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Gloucester Cathedral, nave, begun 1089 (ceiling later) (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2kg8rui\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The arches that define the naves of these churches are well modulated and geometrically logical\u2014with one look you can see the repeating shapes, and proportions that make sense for an immense and weighty structure. There is a large arcade on the ground level made up of bulky piers or columns. The piers may have been filled with rubble rather than being solid, carved stone. Above this arcade is a second level of smaller arches, often in pairs with a column between the two. The next higher level was again proportionately smaller, creating a rational diminution of structural elements as the mass of the building is reduced.<\/p>\n<p>The decoration is often quite simple, using geometric shapes rather than floral or curvilinear patterns. Common shapes used include diapers\u2014squares or lozenges\u2014and chevrons, which were zigzag patterns and shapes. Plain circles were also used, which echoed the half-circle shape of the ubiquitous arches.<\/p>\n<p>Early Romanesque ceilings and roofs were often made of wood, as if the architects had not quite understood how to span the two sides of the building using stone, which created outward thrust and stresses on the side walls. This development, of course, didn\u2019t take long to manifest, and led from barrel vaulting (simple, semicircular roof vaults) to cross vaulting, which became ever more adventurous and ornate in the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gothic-architecture-an-introduction\/\">Gothic<\/a>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1908\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1908\" style=\"width: 729px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/50710668491_19c5db3af7_o.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1908\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image364.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Romanesque architectural details inside a historic stone building, featuring large rounded arches supported by thick columns and small paired windows above. The structure highlights intricate stone carvings, including decorative capitals and sculpted faces on column bases, with natural light filtering through tall windows.\" width=\"729\" height=\"688\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image364.jpeg 729w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image364-300x283.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image364-65x61.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image364-225x212.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image364-350x330.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 729px) 100vw, 729px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1908\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Gloucester Cathedral, decorative carving on the nave arcade and triforium (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2kg8r1x\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 id=\"romanesque-architecture-basilica-of-saint-sernin\">Romanesque Architecture: Basilica of Saint-Sernin<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1909\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1909\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/2656770308_f763993cee_o.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1909\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image365.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a large, historic church interior featuring rows of wooden pews aligned along a central aisle leading to an ornate altar with golden decorations. Warm lighting from chandeliers and wall sconces highlights tall stone columns and high vaulted ceilings.\" width=\"870\" height=\"580\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image365.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image365-300x200.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image365-768x512.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image365-65x43.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image365-225x150.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image365-350x233.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1909\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Saint Sernin, Toulouse, France, c. 1080\u20131120 with later additions (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/sacred_destinations\/2656770308\">Holly Hayes<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The political center of Toulouse, France today is Place du Capitole, an open city square to the east of a beautiful eighteenth-century neoclassical building. Two major north-south roads traverse the western side of this square, and the names of these two thoroughfares have much to say about the history of the city. The street on the southern end of the square \u2014 Rue de Sainte-Rome \u2014 is named after a long since destroyed thirteenth-century Dominican church, Sainte-Romain. The street that proceeds northwards from the northwest corner of Place du Capitole \u2014 Rue du Taur \u2014 whispers the smallest of hints as to the most important church in the city, Saint-Sernin.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"a-martyred-saint\">A martyred saint<\/h3>\n<p>This imposing Romanesque basilica was constructed in honor of Saint Sernin (Saturninus in Latin), the first bishop of Toulouse. He was born in the early third century in Greece, and was one of seven bishops that Pope Fabian sent to different parts of\u00a0Gaul\u00a0to actively preach the Christian gospels to the pagans who lived in those areas. Many stories that pertain to the early Christian martyrs are fantastical, and we should take Sernin\u2019s own narrative with the proverbial grain of salt.<\/p>\n<p>According to legend, when Sernin entered the city of Toulouse, all of the pagan idols \u2014 which hitherto had regularly spoken to their priests \u2014 suddenly and disturbingly fell into silence. One day in 257, a great group had gathered around an altar, and a man pointed to Sernin as the cause of this divine silence, exclaiming, \u201cThere is the one who preaches everywhere that our temples must be torn down, and who dares to call our gods devils! It is his presence that imposes silence on our oracles!\u201d Sernin was then chained to a nearby bull and drug through the city until his body was broken and skull crushed. His corpse was eventually deposited on a street that since those times has been called the\u00a0<em>Rue du Taur<\/em>, the Road of the Bull.\u00a0 A church appropriately called Notre Dame du Taur commemorates the spot where the bull finally deposited the lifeless body. About 300 meters further north is Saint-Sernin, the basilica where the martyred saint\u2019s bodily remains are purported to reside.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"a-pilgrimage-church\">A pilgrimage church<\/h3>\n<p>Begun sometime around 1080 (approximately 825 years after the saint\u2019s death), Saint-Sernin was formally consecrated as a church about a century later. The opening centuries of the second millennium were a time of great\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/pilgrimage-routes-and-the-cult-of-the-relic\/\">religious pilgrimages<\/a>, and one of the most important pilgrimage sites for the Catholic faithful \u2014 then as now \u2014 is the cathedral of Saint James in Santiago de Compostela, a city in northern Spain. For the pilgrims commencing their journey in Italy, the path they travelled took them through the southern part of France, and one of the major stopping points on this section of the Santiago Trail \u2014 the Way of Saint James \u2014 was the city of Toulouse and the basilica of Saint-Sernin, the church that held the relics of one of the most famous martyred saints of the area.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1910\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1910\" style=\"width: 713px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1910\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image366.png\" alt=\"Map showing Way of St. James pilgrimage routes across France and Spain, highlighting the French Way leading to Santiago de Compostela. Key cities and towns are marked with black dots and labels, with red lines tracing multiple routes from Paris, Arles, and other locations converging towards Spain.\" width=\"713\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image366.png 713w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image366-300x252.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image366-65x55.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image366-225x189.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image366-350x295.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 713px) 100vw, 713px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1910\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Way of Saint James \u2014 routes from France (image:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Way_of_St._James#\/media\/File:French_Ways_of_St._James.svg\">Vivaelcelta<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Saint-Sernin is an excellent example of a Romanesque pilgrimage church, a building that needed to accomplish two interrelated ends. First, the structure needed to provide a suitably inspiring shrine for the holy relics of the saint it was built to commemorate. Second, it needed to be large enough to accommodate the thousands of pilgrims who would arrive each day to pray before and venerate those relics. Fulfilling these two goals, Saint-Sernin is one of the best-preserved and perhaps the largest Romanesque churches in the world. Even almost 950 years after its construction was begun, it remains a religious structure that awes and inspires the pilgrims who still visit.<\/p>\n<p>The Romanesque style is so called because the medieval architects who designed these buildings used a fundamentally Roman architectural language. Romanesque churches are notable for their thick walls with relatively few windows, Roman arches, barrel vaults, and the use of massive vaulting. In contract to the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gothic-architecture-an-introduction\/\">Gothic buildings<\/a>\u00a0that would become fashionable a couple of centuries later, Romanesque churches appear heavy and comparatively dark. Saint-Sernin is also an excellent example of a church with a Latin cross plan. A long central east-west nave is intersected by a shorter north-south transept, a shape that mimics the most recognizable symbol of the Christian faith.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1911\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1911\" style=\"width: 840px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1911\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image367.jpeg\" alt=\"Floor plan diagram of a cathedral highlighting architectural layout and key sections with color-coded areas: purple for nave with 12 bays, blue for transepts, pink for radiating chapels, green for ambulatory, and yellow for crossing. Structural components include aisles, labeled sections, a north directional arrow, and a scale bar indicating distances up to 30 meters.\" width=\"840\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image367.jpeg 840w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image367-300x214.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image367-768x549.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image367-65x46.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image367-225x161.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image367-350x250.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 840px) 100vw, 840px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1911\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Plan of Saint Sernin, Toulouse<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>One of the best ways to fully appreciate a medieval church is to stroll around its exterior. Indeed, during this circumnavigation, one is not only transported back in time, but also through time. It often took centuries to construct churches of the size and scale of Saint-Sernin. By walking around the exterior of these churches an observant visitor can clearly see shifting architectural styles and changing sculptural aesthetics. Although construction was begun on Saint-Sernin by about 1080, slight changes in the proportion of brick and stone used during the course of its construction suggest the church went through a number of different building campaigns from its genesis until its ultimate conclusion, perhaps as many as four. Romanesque (and Gothic) churches are often a negotiation between what was dreamed and what came to pass; the final church often looks different from its original architectural plan.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1912\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1912\" style=\"width: 848px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/05\/St_Sernin-overview.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1912\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image368.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a large historic brick church facade featuring a prominent circular stained glass window above three arched doorways. The structure includes vertical buttresses, small rectangular windows, and a few people and parked cars in front, highlighting its scale and architectural details.\" width=\"848\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image368.jpeg 848w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image368-300x212.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image368-768x543.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image368-65x46.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image368-225x159.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image368-350x248.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 848px) 100vw, 848px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1912\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France, c. 1080-1120 with later additions (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/guillermofdez\/3041169381\/\">Guillermo Fdez<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>This is evident when looking at the west fa\u00e7ade of the church (in medieval churches, this is commonly referred to as the westwork). Most churches during the late medieval period were constructed with a tower on both the north and south ends of the westwork, and the extensive and massive buttressing on the corners of the west fa\u00e7ade of the structure strongly indicate that such towers were part of the original plan of the church. In the absence of these vertical towers, the front of the church is instead dominated by its large central circular window, set into a shallow pointed arch recession. Underneath this window are five small Roman (round) arches that harmoniously frame the two large Roman arch entranceways. This central part of the fa\u00e7ade \u2014 from the large entrances to the circular window \u2014 is framed by the vertical buttresses on the left and right sides.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1913\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1913\" style=\"width: 1429px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/05\/St_Sernin_Toulouse.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1913\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image369.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a historic church with a tall, ornate bell tower under a blue sky with scattered clouds. The structure features arched windows, detailed stonework, and a wrought iron fence in the foreground, highlighting architectural elements typical of Romanesque style.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"952\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image369.jpeg 1429w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image369-300x200.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image369-1024x682.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image369-768x512.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image369-65x43.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image369-225x150.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image369-350x233.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1429px) 100vw, 1429px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1913\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France, bell tower c. 1270-1470 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Exterior_of_Saint-Sernin#\/media\/File:St_Sernin_Toulouse.JPG\">Guimsou<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Walking from the front of the church along one of the sides brings into focus the large bell tower over the\u00a0crossing. The octagonal tower is made of five layered tiers that are capped by a spire. The first three tiers feature Roman arches and were likely begun in the twelfth century. The much later uppermost tiers date from about 1270 \u2014 nearly two centuries after construction the church first began \u2014 and feature Gothic pointed arches. The spire at the top was finally completed around 1470 and measures 213 feet (65 m) in height. The bell tower alone is a visual lesson in the shifting architectural styles in fashion over the four centuries of a church\u2019s construction.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1914\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1914\" style=\"width: 1190px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/05\/6911530797_93839b0bed_o.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1914\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image370.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a historic Romanesque church with a tall, ornate bell tower under a clear blue sky. The building features rounded arches, detailed stonework, and symmetrical design, with shadows emphasizing architectural depth and a parked vehicle visible in the foreground.\" width=\"1190\" height=\"1000\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image370.jpeg 1190w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image370-300x252.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image370-1024x861.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image370-768x645.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image370-65x55.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image370-225x189.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image370-350x294.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1190px) 100vw, 1190px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1914\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France, apse and radiating chapels, c. 1080-1120 with later additions (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/pierre-selim\/6911530797\/in\/photolist-bD7bHm-bSe59a-XYo17M-cZgnN7-aqJFRU-bH73qa-bBPfu5-bSg9GH-bwKpj6-byetXm-bM8CSg-bye7o5-aDu2QN-dX8gfC-aESb9w-aFCKTn-aFCFKX-aFCKqk-bM9cW4-epd1Cx-dBmMoa-bDmrc3-bT2U8t-dX2tmc-bT2UUR\">Pierre-Selim<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>If the bell tower and its spire are the elements of the church that are most visible around the city of Toulouse, it is the architectural elements on the eastern side of the church \u2014 the apse end \u2014 that made Saint-Sernin famous. It was common during the medieval era for the apse of the church to have small chapels for the placement of holy relics where pilgrims could come to visit and venerate them. But in Saint-Sernin, the entire eastern end of the church \u2014 from the north transept, around the apse, and concluding on the southern transept \u2014 is filled with nine radiating chapels. Even from an exterior view, it is clear that one of the primary roles of this structure was to house relics for pilgrims to visit.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1915\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1915\" style=\"width: 1000px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/05\/Nave_-_Basilique_Saint-Sernin_-_Alt1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1915\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image371.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a long, vaulted church interior with rows of wooden pews aligned on both sides of a central aisle leading to an ornate altar. Warm lighting from wall-mounted chandeliers highlights stone arches and detailed ceiling fresco in the apse.\" width=\"1000\" height=\"1000\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image371.jpeg 1000w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image371-300x300.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image371-150x150.jpeg 150w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image371-768x768.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image371-65x65.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image371-225x225.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image371-350x350.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1000px) 100vw, 1000px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1915\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France, view of the nave toward the apse, c. 1080-1120 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/Category:Basilica_Saint-Sernin_nave#\/media\/File:Nave_-_Basilique_Saint-Sernin_-_Alt1.jpg\">PierreSelim<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"chapels-sculptures-and-the-tomb-of-a-saint\">Chapels, sculptures, and the tomb of a saint<\/h3>\n<p>The plan of the interior of the church reinforces this function. The large\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/blog.stephens.edu\/arh101glossary\/?glossary=barrel-vault\">barrel-vaulted<\/a>\u00a0central nave is flanked on each side by double side aisles. When standing in the nave the faithful look towards the same high altar that Pope Urban II consecrated on 24 May 1096.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1911\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1911\" style=\"width: 840px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1911\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image367.jpeg\" alt=\"Floor plan diagram of a cathedral highlighting architectural layout and key sections with color-coded areas: purple for nave with 12 bays, blue for transepts, pink for radiating chapels, green for ambulatory, and yellow for crossing. Structural components include aisles, labeled sections, a north directional arrow, and a scale bar indicating distances up to 30 meters.\" width=\"840\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image367.jpeg 840w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image367-300x214.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image367-768x549.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image367-65x46.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image367-225x161.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image367-350x250.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 840px) 100vw, 840px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1911\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Plan of Saint Sernin, Toulouse<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The nave is 69 feet in height and is twelve bays in length from the entrance (the narthex) to the crossing. Each bay is twice as wide as it is long. Harmoniously, these same proportions are mirrored by each of the double side aisles that flank the nave, thus creating a profound architectural unity. This unity is likewise reflected by the arches that separate the nave from the innermost side aisle and the arches in the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/blog.stephens.edu\/arh101glossary\/?glossary=triforium\">triforium<\/a>\u00a0that allow light to flood into the nave.<\/p>\n<p>If the primary function of the nave was for the celebration of the Catholic mass, then the double side aisles allowed the throngs of pilgrims who arrived daily to visit the nine radiating chapels without interrupting any religious service in process. A pilgrim might enter the church, turn to their left, and then proceed down a side aisle and move along the transept. From there, they could worship and venerate at any of the nine radiating chapels and see the works of art located in the ambulatory. Of particular note is a large-scale relief of Christ in Majesty that dates from c. 1096. Jesus sits in a shallow\u00a0mandorla; he raises his right hand in a gesture of blessing while his left hand holds a gospel with the words\u00a0<em>Pax Vobis\u00a0<\/em>\u2014 \u201cPeace to You\u201d in Latin \u2014 inscribed on the pages. Symbols of the four gospel writers look towards Jesus from the four corners.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1916\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1916\" style=\"width: 637px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/05\/17089435580_8d8eeb0a9d_o.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1916\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image372.jpeg\" alt=\"A carved stone relief depicting a seated religious figure within an almond-shaped mandorla, surrounded by symbolic creatures including a lion, an ox, an eagle, and a human figure. The figure holds a book with inscribed letters and raises a hand in blessing, highlighting themes of divinity and authority in Christian iconography.\" width=\"637\" height=\"1000\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image372.jpeg 637w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image372-191x300.jpeg 191w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image372-65x102.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image372-225x353.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image372-350x549.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 637px) 100vw, 637px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1916\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France, Christ in Majesty relief, c. 1096 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/pistolero31\/17089435580\/\">Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric Neupont<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The main attraction of the basilica, however, is the tomb of Saint Saturnin that is located on the inner part of the ambulatory. To reach this space, a pilgrim would enter through a doorway where the lintel was carved with the head of Christ flanked by two scallop shells, visual symbols for the pilgrimage trail to Santiago de Compostela. Immediately underneath this lintel \u2014 on the iron gate that serves as a barrier \u2014 are the words\u00a0<em>Non Est in Toto Sanctior Orbe Locus<\/em>; \u201cThere is no holier place on earth.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Saint-Sernin also featured upper and lower crypts that could be visited while in the ambulatory, which contained various shrines and reliquaries. Concluding their visit, the traveling pilgrims would then walk along the side aisle opposite the one they had previously used and then exit the church.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1917\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1917\" style=\"width: 868px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1917\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image373.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate stone doorway featuring a barred gate and Latin inscription above the entrance. Decorative elements include two large carved shells and a central bust sculpture framed by intricate floral motifs.\" width=\"868\" height=\"710\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image373.jpeg 868w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image373-300x245.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image373-768x628.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image373-65x53.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image373-225x184.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image373-350x286.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 868px) 100vw, 868px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1917\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Basilica of Saint-Sernin, Toulouse, France, entrance to the tomb of Saint Saturnin, c. 1080-1120 (photo: Dr. Bryan Zygmont, <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/saint-sernin\/\">Smarthistory<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"looking-to-saint-james\">Looking to Saint James<\/h3>\n<p>While the Basilica of Saint-Sernin may have served as a kind of stopping point for pilgrims on the Way of Saint James, it became a kind of pilgrimage destination in its own right in the decades after its construction. Indeed, it is a near contemporary with the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela (c. 1078), and there is some disagreement about which church is older, as some architectural historians date the groundbreaking for Saint-Sernin to 1077. Regardless of which is older, there is one important note that is generally well accepted: there is clear relationship between the two buildings. Both are Latin cross in plan, and both feature nine radiating chapels on the eastern side of the church. In arriving in Santiago de Compostela, those pilgrims who had traveled together along the southern path of the Way of Saint James and had previously visited Saint-Sernin would have encountered a church that familiarly whispered to them.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"pilgrimage-routes-and-the-cult-of-the-relic\">Pilgrimage routes and the cult of the relic<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1918\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1918\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/l0mQAO-c.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1918\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image374.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a large Romanesque church interior featuring tall stone columns and rounded arches with alternating light and dark stone patterns. Rows of wooden chairs line the central aisle leading to an illuminated altar area, with two people walking toward it, highlighting the building's grand scale and architectural symmetry.\" width=\"870\" height=\"610\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image374.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image374-300x210.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image374-768x538.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image374-65x46.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image374-225x158.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image374-350x245.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1918\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Basilica Sainte-Madeleine, V\u00e9zelay, France, dedicated 1104 (photo: Steven Zucker, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"the-end-of-the-world\">The end of the world<\/h3>\n<p>Y2K. The Rapture. 2012. For over a decade, speculation about the end of the world has run rampant\u2014all in conjunction with the arrival of the new millennium. The same was true for our religious European counterparts who, prior to the year 1000, believed the Second Coming of Christ was imminent, and the end was nigh.<\/p>\n<p>When the apocalypse failed to materialize in 1000, it was decided that the correct year must be 1033, a thousand years from the death of Jesus Christ, but then that year also passed without any cataclysmic event.<\/p>\n<p>Just how extreme the millennial panic was remains debated. It is certain that from the year 950 onwards, there was a significant increase in building activity, particularly of religious structures. There were many reasons for this construction boom beside millennial panic, and the building of monumental religious structures continued even as fears of the immediate end of time faded.<\/p>\n<p>Not surprisingly, this period also witnessed a surge in the popularity of the religious pilgrimage. A pilgrimage is a journey to a sacred place. These are acts of piety and may have been undertaken in gratitude for the fact that doomsday had not arrived, and to ensure salvation, whenever the end did come.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-pilgrimage-to-santiago-de-compostela\">The pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1919\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1919\" style=\"width: 1429px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1919\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image375.jpeg\" alt=\"Map showing major pilgrimage routes across Western Europe, including countries like Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Germany, and Switzerland. Key cities and connections are marked with red and black lines, highlighting important hubs and cross-border links between countries.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"1006\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image375.jpeg 1429w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image375-300x211.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image375-1024x721.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image375-768x541.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image375-65x46.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image375-225x158.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image375-350x246.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1429px) 100vw, 1429px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1919\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map of pilgrimage routes (image:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ways_of_St._James_in_Europe.png\">Manfred Zentgraf, Volkach, Germany<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.5\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.5<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>For the average European in the 12th century, a pilgrimage to the Holy Land of Jerusalem was out of the question\u2014travel to West Asia was too far, too dangerous, and too expensive. Santiago de Compostela in Spain offered a much more convenient option.<\/p>\n<p>To this day, hundreds of thousands of faithful travel the \u201cWay of Saint James\u201d to the Spanish city of Santiago de Compostela. They go on foot across Europe to a holy shrine where bones, believed to belong to Saint James, were unearthed. The Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela now stands on this site.<\/p>\n<p>The pious of the Middle Ages wanted to pay homage to holy relics, and pilgrimage churches sprang up along the route to Spain. Pilgrims commonly walked barefoot and wore a scalloped shell, the symbol of Saint James (the shell\u2019s grooves symbolize the many roads of the pilgrimage).<\/p>\n<p>In France alone, there were four main routes toward Spain. Le Puy, Arles, Paris, and V\u00e9zelay are the cities on these roads, and each contains a church that was an important pilgrimage site in its own right.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1920\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1920\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/09\/2559997691_d88a747ba7_o-copy-copy.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1920\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image376.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of a stone relief sculpture depicting two human figures carrying heavy loads on their backs. The sculpture features detailed carvings, including a circular emblem on the load of the right figure and an inscription above the figures.\" width=\"300\" height=\"472\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image376.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image376-191x300.jpeg 191w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image376-65x102.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image376-225x354.jpeg 225w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1920\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Pilgrims from the tympanum of Cathedral of Saint Lazare, Autun (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4UdE8e\">Holly Hayes<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"why-make-a-pilgrimage\">Why make a pilgrimage?<\/h3>\n<p>A pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela was an expression of Christian devotion, and it was believed that it could purify the soul and perhaps even produce miraculous healing benefits. A criminal could travel the \u201cWay of Saint James\u201d as an act of penance. For the everyday person, a pilgrimage was also one of the only opportunities to travel and see some of the world. It was a chance to meet people, perhaps even those outside one\u2019s own class. The purpose of pilgrimage may not have been entirely devotional.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-cult-of-the-relic\">The cult of the relic<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1921\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1921\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/2810884187_0d74bc6fbc_o.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1921\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image377.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate gold and jewel-encrusted statue seated on a detailed throne, displayed on a red pedestal. The statue features intricate craftsmanship with embedded gemstones and a reflective dark background highlighting its elaborate design and regal posture.\" width=\"300\" height=\"475\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image377.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image377-189x300.jpeg 189w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image377-65x103.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image377-225x356.jpeg 225w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1921\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Reliquary of Saint Foy at Conque Abbey (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/5hovWt\">Holly Hayes<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Pilgrimage churches can be seen in part as popular destinations, a spiritual tourism of sorts for medieval travelers. Guidebooks, badges, and various souvenirs were sold. Pilgrims, though traveling light, would spend money in the towns that possessed important sacred relics.<\/p>\n<p>The cult of relic was at its peak during the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-art\/\">Romanesque period<\/a>, from about 1000\u20131200. Relics are religious objects generally connected to a saint, or some other venerated person. A relic might be a body part, a saint\u2019s finger, a cloth worn by the Virgin Mary, or a piece of the True Cross.<\/p>\n<p>Relics are often housed in a protective container called a reliquary. Reliquaries are often quite opulent and can be encrusted with precious metals and gemstones given by the faithful. An example is the Reliquary of Saint Foy, located at Conques abbey on the pilgrimage route. It is said to hold a piece of the child martyr\u2019s skull. A large pilgrimage church might be home to one major relic, and dozens of lesser-known relics. Because of their sacred and economic value, every church wanted an important relic, and a black market boomed with fake and stolen goods.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"accommodating-crowds\">Accommodating crowds<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1922\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1922\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/09\/PortalSaintLazare-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1922\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image378.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a Romanesque church portal featuring intricately carved stone arches and a central wooden door. Detailed sculptures include biblical figures and decorative patterns, with a prominent statue positioned on a column in front of the door.\" width=\"870\" height=\"608\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image378.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image378-300x210.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image378-768x537.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image378-65x45.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image378-225x157.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image378-350x245.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1922\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Portal, Cathedral of Saint Lazare, Autun, 12th century (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/jk4dMA\">Patrick<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Pilgrimage churches were constructed with some special features to make them particularly accessible to visitors. The goal was to get large numbers of people to the relics and out again without disturbing the Mass in the center of the church. A large portal that could accommodate the pious throngs was a prerequisite. Generally, these portals would also have an elaborate sculptural program, often portraying the Second Coming\u2014a good way to remind the weary pilgrim why they made the trip!<\/p>\n<p>A pilgrimage church generally consisted of a double aisle on either side of the nave (the wide hall that runs down the center of a church). In this way, the visitor could move easily around the outer edges of the church until reaching the smaller apsidioles or radiating chapels. These are small rooms generally located off the back of the church behind the altar where relics were often displayed. The faithful would move from chapel to chapel, venerating each relic in turn.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1923\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1923\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/375px-Plan-st-Sernin-Toulouse-copy.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1923\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image379.jpeg\" alt=\"Diagram of a church floor plan labeled with architectural elements including nave, aisles, apse, crossing, ambulatory, and radiating chapels. The layout highlights structural components with black dots representing columns and arrows indicating architectural components.\" width=\"300\" height=\"417\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image379.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image379-216x300.jpeg 216w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image379-65x90.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image379-225x313.jpeg 225w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1923\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Saint Sernin, Toulouse (plan)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"thick-walls-small-windows\">Thick walls, small windows<\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-architecture\/\">Romanesque churches<\/a>\u00a0were dark. This was in large part because of the use of stone barrel-vault construction. This system provided excellent acoustics and reduced fire danger. However, a barrel vault exerts continuous lateral (outward pressure) all along the walls that support the vault.<\/p>\n<p>This meant the outer walls of the church had to be extra thick. It also meant that windows had to be small and few. When builders dared to pierce walls with additional or larger windows, they risked structural failure. Churches did collapse.<\/p>\n<p>Later, the masons of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gothic-architecture-an-introduction\/\">Gothic period<\/a>\u00a0replaced the barrel vault with the groin vault, which carries weight down to its four corners, concentrating the pressure of the vaulting, and allowing for much larger windows.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1924\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1924\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/09\/Tournus_-_Saint-Philibert_de_Tournus_Abbey_-_04-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1924\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image380.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph showing two views of a cathedral interior: a longitudinal view of nave with tall columns and arched ceilings on the left, and a ceiling view highlighting ribbed vaults and clerestory windows on the right. Both views emphasize architectural details, light filtering through windows, and structural elements typical of Gothic and Romanesque design.\" width=\"870\" height=\"290\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image380.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image380-300x100.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image380-768x256.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image380-65x22.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image380-225x75.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image380-350x117.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1924\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Left: Nave, Tournus Cathedral, 11th century (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Tournus_-_Saint-Philibert_de_Tournus_Abbey_-_04.JPG\">Christophe.Finot<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>); right: Groin vaults, Robert de Luzarches, Thomas de Cormont, and Renaud de Cormont, Amiens Cathedral, begun 1220, Amiens, France (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/TBDexx\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 id=\"romanesque-art-church-and-reliquary-of-sainte-foy-france\">Romanesque Art: Church and Reliquary of Sainte-Foy, France<\/h2>\n<h3 id=\"on-the-road\">On the road<\/h3>\n<p>Imagine you pack up your belongings in a sack, tie on your cloak, and start off on a months-long journey through treacherous mountains, unpredictable weather and unknown lands. For the medieval pilgrim, life was a spiritual journey. Why did people in the Middle Ages take\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/pilgrimage-routes-and-the-cult-of-the-relic\/\">pilgrimages<\/a>? There are many reasons, but visiting a holy site meant being closer to God. And if you were closer to God in this life, you would also be closer to God in the next.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"a-romanesque-pilgrimage-church-saint-foy-conques\">A Romanesque pilgrimage church: Saint-Foy, Conques<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1925\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1925\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/SaintFoy.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1925\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image381.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a historic stone church with two tall spires and a smaller bell tower, surrounded by traditional slate-roofed buildings nestled in a green, forested hillside. The scene highlights architectural details of the church and the quaint village setting, emphasizing the contrast between man-made structures and natural landscape.\" width=\"870\" height=\"653\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image381.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image381-300x225.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image381-768x576.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image381-65x49.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image381-225x169.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image381-350x263.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1925\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, Conques, France, c. 1050\u20131130 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/kTCD1\">jean-louis Zimmermann<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Located in Conques, the Church of Saint-Foy (Saint Faith) is an important pilgrimage church on the route to Santiago de Compostela in Northern Spain. It is also an abbey, meaning that the church was part of a monastery where monks lived, prayed and worked. Only small parts of the monastery have survived but the church remains largely intact. Although smaller churches stood on the site from the seventh century, the Church of Saint-Foy was begun in the eleventh century and completed in the mid-twelfth century. As a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-architecture\/\">Romanesque church<\/a>, it has a barrel-vaulted nave lined with arches on the interior.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1926\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1926\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/Conques_eglise_nef.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1926\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image382.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a Romanesque church interior featuring tall stone columns, rounded arches, and a central aisle leading to an altar with a crucifix. Natural light filters through arched windows, highlighting the architectural symmetry and spacious nave with wooden pews on both sides.\" width=\"870\" height=\"934\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image382.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image382-279x300.jpeg 279w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image382-768x824.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image382-65x70.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image382-225x242.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image382-350x376.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1926\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, Conques, France, c. 1050\u20131130 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Conques_eglise_nef.jpg\">Velvet<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>It is known as a pilgrimage church because many of the large churches along the route to Santiago de Compostela took a similar shape. The main feature of these churches was the cruciform plan. Not only did this plan take the symbolic form of the cross but it also helped control the crowds of pilgrims. In most cases, pilgrims could enter the western portal and then circulate around the church towards the apse at the eastern end. The apse usually contained smaller chapels, known as radiating chapels, where pilgrims could visit saint\u2019s shrines, especially the sanctuary of Saint Foy. They could then circulate around the ambulatory and out the transept, or crossing. This design helped to regulate the flow of traffic throughout the church although the intention and effective use of this design has been debated.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1927\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1927\" style=\"width: 582px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1927\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image383.jpeg\" alt=\"Floor plan diagram of a Romanesque cathedral highlighting architectural components such as nave, apse, ambulatory (shaded blue), and radiating chapels (shaded pink). Key labels include west portal, transept exit, and structural columns, illustrating spatial organization and circulation paths within the cathedral.\" width=\"582\" height=\"402\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image383.jpeg 582w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image383-300x207.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image383-65x45.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image383-225x155.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image383-350x242.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 582px) 100vw, 582px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1927\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Plan, Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, Conques, France, c. 1050\u20131130 C.E. (<a href=\"http:\/\/web.archive.org\/web\/20150625184044\/http:\/www.learn.columbia.edu\/ma\/htm\/dj_roman\/ma_djr_image_sfoy_plan01.htm\">adapted<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"a-warning-in-stone-the-tympanum-of-the-last-judgment\">A warning in stone: The tympanum of the Last Judgment<\/h3>\n<p>When a pilgrim arrived at Conques, they would probably head for the church to receive blessing. Yet before they got inside, an important message awaited them on the portals: the Last Judgment. This scene is depicted on the tympanum,\u00a0the central semi-circular relief carving above the central portal.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1928\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1928\" style=\"width: 1249px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1928\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image384.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a Romanesque church facade featuring two tall, pointed towers with arched windows and a central section with a circular window above three smaller arched windows. The stone structure displays detailed carvings above the entrance and a clear blue sky background.\" width=\"1249\" height=\"2048\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image384.jpeg 1249w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image384-183x300.jpeg 183w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image384-625x1024.jpeg 625w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image384-768x1259.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image384-937x1536.jpeg 937w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image384-65x107.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image384-225x369.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image384-350x574.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1249px) 100vw, 1249px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1928\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, Conques, France, c. 1050\u20131130 C.E. (photo:<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Saint_Faith_Abbey_Church_in_Conques_05.jpg\">Tournasol7<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In the center sits Christ as Judge, and he means business! He sits enthroned with his right hand pointing upwards to the saved while his left hand gestures down to the damned. This scene would have served as a reminder to those entering the Church of Saint-Foy about the joys of heaven and torments of hell. Immediately on Christ\u2019s right are Mary, Peter and possibly the founder of the monastery as well as an entourage of other\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/whos-who-how-to-recognize-saints-2\/\">saints<\/a>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1929\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1929\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/7621507888_2086f09a28_o.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1929\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image385.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a detailed stone tympanum above a church entrance, depicting religious scenes with multiple human figures arranged in horizontal registers. Central figure seated with a cross behind, surrounded by angels, apostles, and various narrative scenes carved in relief within an arched frame of weathered stone.\" width=\"870\" height=\"582\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image385.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image385-300x201.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image385-768x514.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image385-65x43.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image385-225x151.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image385-350x234.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1929\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Last Judgment tympanum, Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, France, Conques, c. 1050\u20131130 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/cBudLq\">\u00d2me deu Teishen\u00e8ir<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Below these saints, a small arcade is covered by a pediment, meant to represent the House of Paradise. These are the blessed, those have been saved by Christ and who will remain in Paradise with him for eternity. At the center, we find Abraham and above him notice the outstretched hand of God, who beckons a kneeling Saint Faith (see image below).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1930\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1930\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/SainteFoyHand.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1930\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image386.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of a medieval stone relief sculpture depicting a series of religious figures arranged in arched niches with Latin inscriptions above and below. The relief features detailed carvings of robed individuals, some holding objects, with a central figure elevated above others, highlighting its significance in the composition.\" width=\"870\" height=\"576\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image386.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image386-300x199.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image386-768x508.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image386-65x43.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image386-225x149.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image386-350x232.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1930\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The blessed in paradise, with the hand of God above beckoning Saint Foy (Saint Faith) (detail), Last Judgment tympanum, Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, France, Conques, c. 1050\u20131130 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/53kK4M\">Holly Hayes<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>On the other side of the pediment, a row of angels opens the graves of the dead. As the dead rise from their tombs, their souls will be weighed and they will be admitted to heaven or hell. This is the scene that we see right under Christ\u2019s feet\u2014you can see the clear division between a large doorway leading to Paradise and a terrifying mouth that leads the way to Hell.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1931\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1931\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/SainteFoyGates.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1931\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image387.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed stone relief sculpture depicting a biblical scene with multiple human and monstrous figures interacting, including a large creature with an open mouth on the right. Latin inscriptions run along top and bottom edges, with intricate carvings showing various postures and expressions, highlighting dramatic narrative elements.\" width=\"870\" height=\"568\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image387.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image387-300x196.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image387-768x501.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image387-65x42.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image387-225x147.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image387-350x229.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1931\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The gates of heaven and the mouth of hell (detail), Last Judgment tympanum, Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, France, Conques, c. 1050\u20131130 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/5hsQL3\">Holly Hayes<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Inside Hell, things aren\u2019t looking very good. It is a chaotic, disorderly scene\u2014notice how different it looks from the right-hand side of the tympanum. There is also a small pediment in the lower register of Hell, where the Devil, just opposite to Abraham, reigns over his terrifying kingdom.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1932\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1932\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/SainteFoyHell.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1932\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image388.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed stone relief sculpture depicting a chaotic scene with numerous human and demonic figures engaged in various actions, representing a religious narrative. The carving features Latin inscriptions, layered composition with a large central demonic figure, and intricate expressions and gestures highlighting themes of torment and struggle.\" width=\"870\" height=\"686\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image388.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image388-300x237.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image388-768x606.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image388-65x51.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image388-225x177.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image388-350x276.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1932\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hell (detail), Last Judgment tympanum, Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, France, Conques, c. 1050\u20131130 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/cMfDE5\">ricardo<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The devil, like Christ, is also an enthroned judge, determining the punishments that await the damned according to the severity of their sins. In particular, to the\u00a0devil\u2019s left is a hanged man. This man is a reference to Judas, who hanged himself after betraying Christ. Just beyond Judas, a knight is tossed into the fires of Hell and above him, a gluttonous man is hung by his legs for his sins. Each of these sinners represents a type of sin to avoid, from adultery, to arrogance, even to the misuse of church offices. Indeed, this portal was not only a warning for pilgrims, but for the clergy who lived in Conques as well.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1933\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1933\" style=\"width: 555px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/SainteFoyHellDetail.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1933\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image389.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of a detailed stone relief sculpture depicting five grotesque, humanoid figures in a chaotic scene, possibly representing a religious narrative. The relief features intricate textures, exaggerated facial expressions, and a carved inscription along the bottom edge.\" width=\"555\" height=\"522\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image389.jpeg 555w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image389-300x282.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image389-65x61.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image389-225x212.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image389-350x329.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 555px) 100vw, 555px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1933\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">A gluttonous man, detail of the Last Judgment tympanum, Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, France, Conques, c. 1050\u20131130 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/cMfDE5\">ricardo<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"the-reliquary\">The reliquary<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1934\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1934\" style=\"width: 705px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/SainteFoyReliquary.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1934\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image390.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate medieval reliquary statue depicting a seated figure adorned with gold, jewels, and intricate metalwork. The figure holds two orbs and wears a crown, with detailed embellishments covering the robe and throne.\" width=\"705\" height=\"1219\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image390.jpeg 705w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image390-174x300.jpeg 174w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image390-592x1024.jpeg 592w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image390-65x112.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image390-225x389.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image390-350x605.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 705px) 100vw, 705px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1934\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Reliquary statue of Sainte-Foy (Saint Faith), late 10th to early 11th century with later additions, gold, silver gilt, jewels, and cameos over a wooden core, 33 1\/2 inches (Treasury, Sainte-Foy, Conques) (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/53a8EU\">Holly Hayes<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Pilgrims arriving in Conques had one thing on their mind: the reliquary of Saint Foy. This reliquary, or container holding the remains of a saint or holy person, was one of the most famous in all of Europe. So famous that it was originally located in a monastery in Agen but the monks at Conques plotted to steal it in order to attract more wealth and visitors. The reliquary at Conques held the remains of Saint Foy, a young Christian convert living in Roman-occupied France during the second century. At the age of twelve, she was condemned to die for her refusal to sacrifice to pagan gods, she is therefore revered\u00a0as a martyr, as\u00a0someone who dies for their faith. Saint Foy was a very popular saint in Southern France\u00a0and her relic\u00a0was extremely important to\u00a0the church;\u00a0bringing pilgrims and wealth to the small, isolated town of Conques.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1935\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1935\" style=\"width: 692px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/SainteFoyReliquaryHead.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1935\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image391.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate golden bust adorned with various colorful gemstones and intricate metalwork, set against a dark background. The bust features detailed craftsmanship with embedded jewels and decorative patterns.\" width=\"692\" height=\"708\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image391.jpeg 692w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image391-293x300.jpeg 293w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image391-65x67.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image391-225x230.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image391-350x358.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 692px) 100vw, 692px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1935\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Head (detail), Reliquary statue of Sainte-Foy (Saint Faith), late 10th to early 11th century with later additions, gold, silver gilt, jewels, and cameos over a wooden core, 33-1\/2 inches (Treasury, Sainte-Foy, Conques) (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/53a8Hs\">Holly Hayes<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>While the date of the reliquary is unknown, Bernard of Angers first spoke it about in 1010. At first, Bernard was frightened that the statue was too beautiful stating, \u201cBrother, what do you think of this idol? Would Jupiter or Mars consider himself unworthy of such a statue?\u201d He was concerned about idolatry\u2014that pilgrims would begin to worship the jewel-encrusted reliquary rather than what that reliquary contained and represented, the holy figure of Saint Foy. Indeed, the gold and gem encrusted statue would been\u00a0quite a sight for the pilgrims.\u00a0Over time, travelers paid homage to Saint Foy by donating\u00a0gemstones for the reliquary so that her dress is\u00a0covered with agates, amethysts, crystals, carnelians, emeralds, garnets, hematite, jade, onyx, opals, pearls, rubies, sapphires, topazes, antique cameos and intaglios. Her face, which stares boldly at the viewer, is thought to have originally been the head of a Roman statue of a child. The reuse of older materials in new forms of art is known as spolia. Using spolia was not only practical but it made the object more important by associating it with the past riches of the Roman Empire.<\/p>\n<p>The Church of Saint Foy at Conques provides an excellent example of Romanesque art and architecture. Although the monastery no longer survives, the church and treasury stand as a reminder of\u00a0the rituals of medieval faith, especially for pilgrims. Even today, people make the long trek to Conques to pay respect to Saint Foy. Every October, a great celebration and procession is held for Saint Foy, continuing a medieval tradition into present day devotion.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"romanesque-art-the-bayeux-tapestry\">Romanesque Art: The Bayeux Tapestry<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1936\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1936\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/bayeux-crowd-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1936\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image392.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of people viewing a section of the illuminated Bayeux Tapestry displayed in a museum setting. The tapestry depicts medieval scenes with labeled numbers, featuring figures in period clothing and architectural elements, illustrating historical events from the Norman Conquest.\" width=\"870\" height=\"463\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image392.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image392-300x160.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image392-768x409.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image392-65x35.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image392-225x120.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image392-350x186.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1936\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Viewing the Bayeux tapestry at the Bayeux Tapestry Museum; Bayeux tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Museum; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/batigolix\/2727418995\/in\/photostream\/\">boris doesborg<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"the-invasion\">The invasion<\/h3>\n<p>On September 28, 1066, the tiny community of Pevensey (on the south-east coast of England), huddled inside the ruins of a late Roman fortification. They would soon be overwhelmed with the arrival of William, Duke of\u00a0Normandy, and an army intent on invasion. Thousands of\u00a0invaders had crossed the English Channel from Normandy on hundreds of open\u00a0longships\u00a0that were big enough to carry cavalry horses and the supplies needed to lay siege to the coastal cities guarding England.<\/p>\n<p>William had been preparing for the invasion since the last\u00a0Anglo-Saxon\u00a0king of England, Edward the Confessor, had died without a direct heir months earlier.<\/p>\n<p>Edward had been succeeded by a newly appointed ruler, Harold Godwinson, but both William and the King of Norway, Harold Hardrada, also laid claim to the throne. Harold Hardrada had crossed the North Sea to invade near present-day Newcastle in the north of England, arriving at almost exactly the same time as William\u2019s army made land further south. Forced to defend two coasts almost three hundred miles apart in quick succession, Harold Godwinson succeeded in defeating the king of Norway, but fell on the field at the Battle of Hastings, just up the coast from Pevensey, shot through the eye with an arrow. Harold\u2019s sizeable army was no match for the mounted warriors William had brought from Normandy. His forces quickly marched west, to Dover and Canterbury, then east, leaving devastation in their wake. By Christmas, 1066, William the Conqueror had been crowned king of England, but facing a rebellion, he continued to\u00a0lay waste to a huge swath of the country before he had all of England firmly within his grasp.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-tapestry\">The Tapestry<\/h3>\n<p>The works of art and architecture made in the wake of this invasion testify to the power of art as a tool for colonization. Perhaps the most famous of these is the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-bayeux-tapestry\/\">Bayeux Tapestry<\/a>.\u00a0Within twenty years of the Norman Conquest of England, needle-workers embroidered dozens of scenes describing the invasion onto this 230-foot-long linen strip using wool and linen yarn. Between narrow upper and lower borders populated by animals, people and objects that act as a subtle commentary on the central narrative, a history of the Norman Conquest unscrolls from left to right, ending abruptly with a tattered, incomplete scene of mace-wielding Anglo-Saxon foot soldiers fleeing the victorious Normans. Embroidered Latin titles help to identify people, places and events.<\/p>\n<p>Measuring twenty inches high and almost 230 feet in length, the Bayeux Tapestry commemorates a struggle for the throne of England between William, the Duke of\u00a0Normandy, and Harold, the Earl of Wessex. The year was 1066\u2014William invaded and successfully conquered England, becoming the first Norman King of England (he was also known as William the Conqueror).<\/p>\n<p>The Bayeux Tapestry\u00a0consists of seventy-five scenes with Latin inscriptions (<em>tituli<\/em>)\u00a0depicting\u00a0the\u00a0events leading up to the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-art-of-conquest-in-england-and-normandy\/\">Norman conquest<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0culminating in the Battle of Hastings in 1066. The textile\u2019s end is now missing, but it most probably showed the coronation of William as King of England.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1937\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1937\" style=\"width: 1432px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1937\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image393.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed embroidery panel from the Bayeux Tapestry depicts a man holding a falcon while seated on a horse. The scene uses muted earth tones with intricate stitching to illustrate medieval falconry and horseback riding.\" width=\"1432\" height=\"742\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image393.jpeg 1432w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image393-300x155.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image393-1024x531.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image393-768x398.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image393-65x34.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image393-225x117.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image393-350x181.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1432px) 100vw, 1432px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1937\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Falconer (detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry\u201411th century.\u00a0Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017\u2014La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Although it is called the Bayeux Tapestry, this commemorative work is not a true tapestry as the images are not woven into the cloth; instead, the imagery and inscriptions are embroidered using wool yarn sewed onto linen cloth.<\/p>\n<p>The tapestry is sometimes viewed as a type of chronicle. However, the inclusion of episodes that do not relate to the historic events of the Norman Conquest complicate this categorization. Nevertheless, it presents a rich representation of a particular historic moment as well as providing an important visual source for eleventh-century textiles that have not survived into the twenty-first century.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1938\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1938\" style=\"width: 2096px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1938\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image394.png\" alt=\"Tapestry embroidery depicting medieval ships with sailors engaged in various activities, showcasing detailed sails, rigging, and animal heads on the vessels' prows. The scene highlights maritime travel and naval elements from the historical period, with muted earth tones and stylized human figures.\" width=\"2096\" height=\"1108\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image394.png 2096w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image394-300x159.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image394-1024x541.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image394-768x406.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image394-1536x812.png 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image394-2048x1083.png 2048w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image394-65x34.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image394-225x119.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image394-350x185.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2096px) 100vw, 2096px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1938\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Normans with horses on boats, crossing to England, in preparation for battle (detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry\u201411th century.\u00a0Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017\u2014La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The Bayeux Tapestry was probably made in Canterbury around 1070. Because the tapestry was made within a generation of the Norman defeat of the\u00a0Anglo-Saxons, it is considered to be a somewhat accurate representation of events. Based on a few key pieces of evidence, art historians believe the patron was Odo, Bishop of Bayeux. Odo was the half-brother of William, Duke of Normandy. Furthermore, the tapestry favorably depicts the Normans in the events leading up to the battle of Hastings, thus presenting a Norman point of view.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1939\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1939\" style=\"width: 1500px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1939\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image395.png\" alt=\"A photograph of a medieval embroidered tapestry depicting a battle scene with mounted soldiers wielding swords and shields. The tapestry features detailed patterns on horses and armor, with Latin inscriptions above and a muted color palette of blues, reds, and browns.\" width=\"1500\" height=\"1088\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image395.png 1500w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image395-300x218.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image395-1024x743.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image395-768x557.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image395-65x47.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image395-225x163.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image395-350x254.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1500px) 100vw, 1500px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1939\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Bishop Odo rallying William the Conqueror\u2019s troops at the Battle of Hastings (detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Most importantly, Odo appears in several scenes in the tapestry with the inscription ODO EPISCOPUS (abbreviated \u201cEPS\u201d in the image above), although he is only mentioned briefly in textual sources. By the late\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-the-middle-ages\/\">Middle Ages<\/a>, the tapestry was displayed at Bayeux Cathedral, which was built by Odo and dedicated in 1077, but its size and secular subject matter suggest that it may have been intended to be a secular hanging, perhaps in Odo\u2019s hall.<\/p>\n<p>We do not know the identity of the artists who produced the tapestry. The high quality of the needlework suggests that Anglo-Saxon embroiderers produced the tapestry. At the time, Anglo-Saxon needlework was prized throughout Europe. This theory is supported by stylistic analysis of the depicted scenes, which draw from Anglo-Saxon drawing techniques. Many of the scenes are believed to have been adapted from images in manuscripts illuminated at Canterbury.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1940\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1940\" style=\"width: 1216px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1940\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image396.png\" alt=\"Tapestry panel depicting a medieval battle scene with armored knights, one on horseback, engaged in combat. Text in Latin above figures identifies a key event, with detailed patterns on shields, weapons, and clothing highlighting historical warfare.\" width=\"1216\" height=\"1044\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image396.png 1216w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image396-300x258.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image396-1024x879.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image396-768x659.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image396-65x56.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image396-225x193.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image396-350x300.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1216px) 100vw, 1216px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1940\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The death of King Harold at the Battle of Hastings (detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry\u201411th century.\u00a0Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017\u2014La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The artists skillfully organized the composition of the tapestry to lead the viewer\u2019s eye from one scene to the next and divided the compositional space into three horizontal zones. The main events of the story are contained within the larger middle zone. The upper and lower zones contain images of animals and people, scenes from\u00a0Aesop\u2019s Fables, and scenes of husbandry and hunting. At times the images in the borders interact with and draw attention to key moments in the narrative (as in the image above of the battle).<\/p>\n<p>The seventy-five episodes depicted present a continuous narrative of the events leading up to the Battle of Hastings and the battle itself. \u00a0A continuous narrative presents multiple scenes of a narrative within a single frame and draws from manuscript traditions such as the scroll form. The subject matter of the tapestry, however, has more in common with ancient monumental decoration such as\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/column-of-trajan\/\">Trajan\u2019s Column<\/a>, which typically focused\u00a0on mythic and historical references.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1941\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1941\" style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1941\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image397-scaled.png\" alt=\"A medieval tapestry scene depicting several figures engaged in preparing food. The artwork features Latin inscriptions above the characters and is rendered in muted earth tones with detailed line work characteristic of historical embroidery.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1090\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image397-scaled.png 2560w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image397-300x128.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image397-1024x436.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image397-768x327.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image397-1536x654.png 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image397-2048x872.png 2048w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image397-65x28.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image397-225x96.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image397-350x149.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1941\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Servants preparing food (detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry\u201411th century.\u00a0Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017\u2014La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The embroiderers\u2019 attention to specific details provides important sources for scenes of eleventh-century life as well as objects that no longer survive. In one scene of\u00a0the Normans\u2019 first meal after reaching the shores of England, we see dining practices. We also see examples of armor used in the period\u00a0and battle preparations. To the left of the dining scene, servants prepare food over a fire and bake bread in an outdoor oven (above). Servants serve the food as the tapestry\u2019s assumed patron, Bishop Odo, blesses the meal (below).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1942\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1942\" style=\"width: 1431px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1942\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image398.jpeg\" alt=\"A medieval embroidered tapestry scene depicting a banquet with several seated figures eating and drinking at a long, curved table, accompanied by a servant carrying a jug underneath. The scene includes Latin text above the figures and features detailed clothing and tableware in muted colors on a beige fabric background.\" width=\"1431\" height=\"635\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image398.jpeg 1431w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image398-300x133.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image398-1024x454.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image398-768x341.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image398-65x29.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image398-225x100.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image398-350x155.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1431px) 100vw, 1431px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1942\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Normans\u2019 first meal in England, at the center is Bishop Odo, who gazes out as he offers a blessing over the cup in his hand.(detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry\u201411th century.\u00a0Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017\u2014La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Immediately after dining, William and his half-brothers Odo and Robert meet for a war council. Preparations for battle flank both sides of the first meal episode (below).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1943\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1943\" style=\"width: 2440px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1943\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image399.png\" alt=\"A medieval embroidered tapestry panel depicting a group of armed men preparing for war with some figures wielding weapons and others operating siege equipment. The scene includes Latin text labels and various animals, with a color palette dominated by earthy tones such as brown, beige, and dark red.\" width=\"2440\" height=\"1154\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image399.png 2440w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image399-300x142.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image399-1024x484.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image399-768x363.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image399-1536x726.png 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image399-2048x969.png 2048w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image399-65x31.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image399-225x106.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image399-350x166.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2440px) 100vw, 2440px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1943\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Preparations for war, including the building of a motte-and-bailey (detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry\u201411th century.\u00a0Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017\u2014La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Here we see visual evidence of eleventh-century battle gear and the construction of a motte-and-bailey to protect the Normans\u2019 position. A\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/motte-and-bailey-castles\/\">motte-and-bailey<\/a>\u00a0is a fortification with a keep (tower) situated on a raised earthwork (motte), surrounded by an enclosed courtyard (bailey). Images of battle horns, shields, and arrows as crucial ammunition shed light on military provisions and tactics for the time period.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1944\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1944\" style=\"width: 2498px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1944\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image400.png\" alt=\"A medieval embroidered tapestry depicting a mounted battle scene with knights in armor wielding lances and shields, accompanied by foot soldiers below. The artwork features detailed patterns on horses and armor, with Latin inscriptions and symbolic figures above the riders.\" width=\"2498\" height=\"1152\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image400.png 2498w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image400-300x138.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image400-1024x472.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image400-768x354.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image400-1536x708.png 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image400-2048x944.png 2048w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image400-65x30.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image400-225x104.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image400-350x161.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2498px) 100vw, 2498px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1944\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Cavalry and foot soldiers in battle (detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry\u201411th century.\u00a0Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017\u2014La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>William\u2019s tactical use of cavalry is displayed in the \u201cCavalry\u201d scene. The cavalry could advance quickly and easily retreat, which would scatter an opponent\u2019s defenses allowing the infantry to invade. It was a strong tactic that was flexible and intimidating. Although foot soldiers are included in the tapestry, the cavalry commands the scene, thus presenting the impression that the Normans were a cavalry-dominant army.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1945\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1945\" style=\"width: 2158px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1945\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image401.png\" alt=\"A detailed section of the Bayeux Tapestry depicting a chaotic battle scene with armored knights on horseback engaged in combat, some horses rearing or falling. The scene features Latin text above, intricate patterns on armor, and various animals, highlighting medieval warfare and artistic embroidery techniques.\" width=\"2158\" height=\"1150\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image401.png 2158w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image401-300x160.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image401-1024x546.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image401-768x409.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image401-1536x819.png 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image401-2048x1091.png 2048w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image401-65x35.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image401-225x120.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image401-350x187.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2158px) 100vw, 2158px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1945\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Wounded soldiers and horses (detail), Bayeux Tapestry, c. 1070, embroidered wool on linen, 20 inches high (Bayeux Tapestry Museum, Official digital representation of the Bayeux Tapestry\u201411th century.\u00a0Credits: City of Bayeux, DRAC Normandie, University of Caen Normandie, CNRS, Ensicaen, Photos: 2017\u2014La Fabrique de patrimoines en Normandie)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In addition to depicting military tactics used in the Norman Conquest, the scene also provides visual evidence for eleventh-century battle gear. Cavalrymen are shown wearing conical steel helmets with a protective nose plate, mail shirts, and carrying shields and spears whereas the foot soldiers are seen carrying spears and axes. Representations of the cavalry show that the soldiers were armored but the horses were not. The brutality of war is evident in the battle scenes. Figures of mortally wounded men and horses are strewn along the tapestry\u2019s lower zone as well as within the main central zone.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"weaving-a-norman-tale\">Weaving a Norman tale<\/h3>\n<p>Scholars have never pinned down where or by whom the embroidery was carried out, or where it was meant to be displayed\u2014a mystery compounded by the fact that this is the only storytelling textile strip of this sort preserved from the Middle Ages. In it, William is portrayed ordering his men to build a fleet of longships, stock them with arms and armor, food, wine, and horses, and set sail for England, where they feast, plan, and finally attack. The ensuing slaughter is unflinchingly rendered: in the lower border, dismembered bodies are stripped by battlefield looters. The style of the tapestry, with its gangly-limbed, beaky-nosed figures, agitated gestures, stolid drapery folds, abrupt changes in scale, and multicolored trees made of rubbery, interlaced fronds, has similarities to other works found on both sides of the Channel. Anglo-Saxon England and the Duchy of Normandy had been exchanging artwork, artists, clergy, and nobles well before the Conquest (their rulers were closely related\u2014King Edward the Confessor\u2019s mother, Emma of Normandy, was William the Conqueror\u2019s great aunt).<\/p>\n<p>If we can\u2019t use style to judge where the tapestry was made, we can instead turn to the story, which displays an indisputably Norman bias, to identify its intended audience. Many medieval texts retold the events of the invasion from both the Anglo-Saxon and Norman perspectives, but Bishop Odo of Bayeux, William\u2019s half brother, figures prominently in the Bayeux tapestry, where he is shown blessing a feast on the eve of battle, advising William, and rallying the troops. It is likely, then, that Odo commissioned the tapestry to celebrate his brother\u2019s victory, and the tale that unfolds along its length highlights William\u2019s (and Odo\u2019s) valor and the supposed wrongdoings of Harold Godwinson, who is depicted swearing an oath to be William\u2019s\u00a0vassal, but then allowing himself to be crowned King of England. The tapestry completely ignores Harold\u2019s victory over the Norwegian king, instead focusing on events of interest to Normans.<\/p>\n<p>While the tapestry\u2019s renditions of ships, weapons, horses, feasts and buildings have been mined by historians for information about daily life and military campaigns, many details are doubtless the result of artistic license. Still, the tapestry showcases some important Norman innovations. After the feast presided over by Bishop Odo, the invaders are shown shoveling dirt onto a striped mound crowned by a structure labeled\u00a0<em>\u201cHesteng ceastra\u201d<\/em> (above). This is the castle of Hastings, one of several such castles (including one at Dover as well as the Tower of London) that William had built during and after his invasion. With these, he imported into England a type of defensive structure that was typical in Normandy and became essential for establishing control over his new English subjects.<\/p>\n<p>The Bayeux Tapestry provides an excellent example of Anglo-Norman art. It serves as a medieval artifact that operates as art, chronicle, political propaganda, and visual evidence of eleventh-century mundane objects, all at a monumental scale. This astounding work continues to fascinate.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>In the detail scene of \u201cWounded soldiers and horses\u201d from the <em>Bayeux Tapestry,<\/em> the anonymous artists used around seven different <strong>colors<\/strong> of dyed wool yarn to embroider on linen. The white linen serves as the <strong>background<\/strong> for a dynamic scene that features the tumultuous twist and turn of the bodies of both horses and humans. The <em>Bayeux Tapestry<\/em> makes use of the <strong>register<\/strong> format of a horizontal band to unfold a narrative. Elements of the Hiberno-Saxon style from early medieval Anglo-Saxon England are present, particularly in the zoomorphic <strong>forms<\/strong> and interlacing <strong>lines<\/strong> and <strong>patterns<\/strong> in the horizontal panel above the central register. Despite a <strong>flat<\/strong> white <strong>background<\/strong>, the artists achieve <strong>depth<\/strong> in the <strong>pictorial space<\/strong> by <strong>overlapping<\/strong> the figures. <strong>Contour lines<\/strong> of different colors of yarn define the <strong>forms<\/strong> of horses, humans, and the outline of shields and weapons. The variety of yarn <strong>colors<\/strong> are also used to create the details of <strong>texture<\/strong> in the horse\u2019s fur, manes, and hooves. The overall dynamism of the <strong>composition<\/strong> with vertical, horizontal, and diagonal <strong>forms<\/strong> allows the viewer to \u201cread\u201d the piece along with its accompanying text from left to right. This successfully moves the viewer forward in time to match the narrative. The horizontal <strong>line<\/strong> that defines the lower boundary of the central panel also serves as a ground for the scene. The line anchors all the figures to a sense of \u201cearth.\u201d Meanwhile, the prone bodies of individuals and horses in the lowest section harken back to earlier conventions of the register in artmaking, such as the <em>Palette of King Narmer<\/em> from Ancient Egypt, where victims of war and destruction are seen underneath the feet of the victors. In this section, the bottom panel is designed to interact and relate to the <strong>composition<\/strong> of the central panel.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-14\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n<p>The Bayeux Tapestry is one of the few surviving secular works of art from the Romanesque period. Otherwise, religious art and architecture dominated the landscape of Western Europe in the period between 1000-1200 C. E. Pilgrimage churches, like the Basilica of Saint Sernin and the Church of Sainte\u2010Foy, led an economic revitalization of Europe in the later Middle Ages. Towns constructed pilgrimage churches to hold sacred relics with the hope of bringing visitors to their cities. Romanesque churches designed on a large scale to accommodate pilgrims; however, the Romanesque architectural style of round arches, barrel vaults, and thick walls meant these interior spaces were dark. In the mid-twelfth century, a new architectural style will introduce light into the design of the pilgrimage church: the Gothic.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-14\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\n<p>The following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and are licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\n<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\n<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\n<li>Conclusion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Dr. Andreas Petzold, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-art\/\">Romanesque art, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Valerie Spanswick, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-architecture\/\">Romanesque architecture, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, May 13, 2025.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Bryan Zygmont, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/saint-sernin\/\">Basilica of Saint-Sernin<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, July 1, 2020.<\/li>\n<li>Christine M. Bolli, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/pilgrimage-routes-and-the-cult-of-the-relic\/\">Pilgrimage routes and the cult of the relic<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Elisa Foster, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/church-and-reliquary-of-saintefoy-france\/\">Church and Reliquary of Sainte-Foy, France<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Diane Reilly, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-art-of-conquest-in-england-and-normandy\/\">The Art of Conquest in England and Normandy<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, May 5, 2017.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Kristine Tanton, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-bayeux-tapestry\/\">The Bayeux Tapestry<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"menu_order":17,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1946","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1946","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1946\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1999,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1946\/revisions\/1999"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1946\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1946"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1946"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1946"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1946"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}