{"id":1824,"date":"2026-07-16T17:32:14","date_gmt":"2026-07-16T17:32:14","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/chapter\/early-medieval-art\/"},"modified":"2026-07-27T17:35:48","modified_gmt":"2026-07-27T17:35:48","slug":"early-medieval-art","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/chapter\/early-medieval-art\/","title":{"raw":"Early Medieval Art","rendered":"Early Medieval Art"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-11\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\r\nAfter the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 C.E., Western Europe entered the Middle Ages. The Early Medieval period covers the beginning of the Middle Ages (c. 500) to the Ottonian style (c. 1000). Medieval art spans a wide geographic area and many variations in style. In this chapter, focus is paid to a few areas of cultural production: Anglo-Saxon England with the interlacing animal style and illuminated manuscripts, Scandinavia with Viking-era art, and the Holy Roman Empire under Carolingian and then Ottonian rule. The Early Medieval period of Western Europe has a complicated history that produced intricately detailed artworks, including objects of personal adornment, illuminated manuscripts, wood carvings, and architecture.\r\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-11\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>Sutton Hoo purse cover<\/em>, from East Anglia, England, c. 630, gold with garnets and cloisonn\u00e9 originally on ivory or bone (since lost)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Eadfrith, <em>Lindisfarne Gospels<\/em>, c. 700, Northumbria, tempera on vellum<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Animal head post found in burial mound near T\u00f8nsberg (Oseberg ship burial), 9th century, Oseberg style, wood\u00a0and paint<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Odo of Metz,\u00a0<em>Interior of Charlemagne\u2019s palace chapel<\/em>, Aachen, 792-805<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Gospels of Otto III<\/em>, c. 1000, ink, gold, paint, parchment<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 id=\"term-list-11\">Term List<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Middle Ages<\/li>\r\n \t<li>\"Dark Ages\"<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Byzantine Empire<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Anglo-Saxon England<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Interlacing animal style<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Millefiori<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Cloisonn\u00e9<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Granulation<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sutton Hoo<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Codex<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Insular\/Hiberno-Saxon art<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Illuminated Manuscript<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Colophon<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Viking<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Norseman<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ribbon-animal<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Gripping beast<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Runestones<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Great Beast motif<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Charlemagne<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Holy Roman Emperor<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Carolingian Renaissance<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Scriptorium<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Agnus dei<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Octagonal centralized plan<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Longitudinal plan<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ottonian<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Scribe<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2 id=\"the-middle-ages-an-introduction\">The Middle Ages, an introduction<\/h2>\r\n<h3 id=\"the-dark-ages\">The dark ages?<\/h3>\r\nSo much of what the average person knows, or thinks they know, about the Middle Ages comes from film and tv. Often people call to mind Monty Python and the Holy Grail, Blackadder, The Sword in the Stone, lusty wenches, feasting, courtly love, the plague, jousting and chain mail.\r\n\r\nPerhaps someone who had seen (or better yet read)\u00a0<em>The Name of the Rose<\/em>\u00a0or\u00a0<em>Pillars of the Earth<\/em>\u00a0would add cathedrals, manuscripts, monasteries, feudalism, monks and friars.\r\n\r\nPetrarch, an Italian poet and scholar of the fourteenth century, famously referred to the period of time between the fall of the Roman Empire (c. 476) and his own day (c. 1330s) as the Dark Ages. Petrarch believed that the Dark Ages was a period of intellectual darkness due to the loss of the classical learning, which he saw as light. Later historians picked up on this idea and ultimately the term Dark Ages was transformed into Middle Ages. Broadly speaking, the Middle Ages is the period of time in Europe between the end of antiquity in the fifth century and the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/primer-italian-renaissance-art\/\">Renaissance<\/a>, or rebirth of classical learning, in the fifteenth century and sixteenth centuries.\r\n<h3 id=\"not-so-dark-after-all\">Not so dark after all<\/h3>\r\nCharacterizing the Middle Ages as a period of darkness falling between two greater, more intellectually significant periods in history is misleading. The Middle Ages was not a time of ignorance and backwardness, but rather a period during which\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christianity-an-introduction\/\">Christianity<\/a>\u00a0flourished in Europe. Christianity, and specifically Catholicism in the Latin West, brought with it new views of life and the world that rejected the traditions and learning of the ancient world.\r\n\r\nDuring this time, the Roman Empire slowly fragmented into many smaller political entities. The geographical boundaries for European countries today were established during the Middle Ages. This was a period that heralded the formation and rise of universities, the establishment of the rule of law, numerous periods of ecclesiastical reform and the birth of the tourism industry. Many works of medieval literature, such as the Canterbury Tales, the Divine Comedy, and The Song of Roland, are widely read and studied today.\r\n\r\nThe visual arts prospered during Middles Ages, which created its own aesthetic values. The wealthiest and most influential members of society commissioned cathedrals, churches, sculpture, painting, textiles, manuscripts, jewelry and ritual items from artists. Many of these commissions were religious in nature but medieval artists also produced secular art. Few names of artists survive and fewer documents record their business dealings, but they left behind an impressive legacy of art and culture.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1783\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/03\/5819442989_0265f89503_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1783\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image246.jpeg\" alt=\"Stained glass window featuring a large circular rose design above five tall, narrow panels depicting religious figures in vibrant reds, blues, and greens. The intricate patterns and detailed imagery highlight traditional Gothic cathedral artistry and religious storytelling.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1223\" \/><\/a> North Transept Rose Window, c. 1235,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/cathedral-of-notre-dame-de-chartres-part-1-of-3\/\">Chartres Cathedral<\/a>, France (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/9SfaDX\">Dr. Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"byzantium\">Byzantium<\/h3>\r\nIn the medieval West, the Roman Empire fragmented, but in the Byzantine East, it remained a strong, centrally-focused political entity. Byzantine emperors ruled from Constantinople, which they thought of as the New Rome. Constantinople housed\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/hagia-sophia-istanbul\/\">Hagia Sophia<\/a>, one of the world\u2019s largest churches, and was a major center of artistic production.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1784\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/HagiaSophia-1.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1784\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image247.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul at sunset, showcasing its large central dome and four tall minarets. Surrounding buildings and trees are visible in foreground, with soft evening sky providing a calm backdrop. \" width=\"870\" height=\"560\" \/><\/a> Isidore of Miletus &amp; Anthemius of Tralles for Emperor Justinian, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, 532\u201337 (photo:<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/nraZY8\">\u00a0Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Byzantine Empire experienced two periods of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/byzantine-iconoclasm\/\">Iconoclasm<\/a>\u00a0(720s\u2013787 and 815\u2013843), when images and image-making were problematic. Iconoclasm left a visible legacy on\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-byzantine-art\/\">Byzantine art<\/a>\u00a0because it created limits on what artists could represent and how those subjects could be represented. Byzantine Art is broken into three periods. Early Byzantine or Early Christian art begins with the earliest extant Christian works of art c. 250 and ends with the end of Iconoclasm in 843. Middle Byzantine art picks up at the end of Iconoclasm and extends to the sack of Constantinople by Latin Crusaders in 1204. Late Byzantine art was made between the sack of Constantinople and the fall of Constantinople to the\u00a0Ottoman Turks\u00a0in 1453.\r\n\r\nIn the European West, Medieval art is often broken into smaller periods. These date ranges vary by location.\r\n<table><colgroup> <col style=\"width: 50%\" \/> <col style=\"width: 50%\" \/> <\/colgroup>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>Early Medieval Art<\/th>\r\n<th>c. 500\u2013800<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/carolingian-art-an-introduction\/\">Carolingian Art<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td>c. 780\u2013900<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ottonian-art-an-introduction\/\">Ottonian Art<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td>c. 900\u20131000<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-art\/\">Romanesque Art<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td>c. 1000\u20131200<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gothic-architecture-an-introduction\/\">Gothic Art<\/a><\/td>\r\n<td>c. 1200\u20131400<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h2 id=\"early-medieval-art-in-anglo-saxon-england-sutton-hoo-ship-burial-and-the-purse-cover\">Early Medieval Art in Anglo-Saxon England: Sutton Hoo Ship Burial and the Purse Cover<\/h2>\r\n1400 years ago, people from early medieval England hauled a ship up a hilltop and buried their king and his treasure within.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=jbn9_IKA3ow\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nThe Purse Cover from the Sutton Hoo Ship Burial is an excellent example of the Hiberno-Saxon style (also called the interlacing animal style) made in Anglo-Saxon England in the early medieval period. The Hiberno-Saxon style consisted of interlacing <strong>lines<\/strong>, zoomorphic <strong>forms<\/strong>, and abstract <strong>patterns<\/strong>. Around the perimeter of the purse cover are <strong>rectilinear lines<\/strong> of gold that create a rhythmic <strong>pattern<\/strong> separating semi-precious red and purple <strong>color<\/strong> glass and stones. The subject matter and the techniques of millefiori and cloisonn\u00e9 used to create the cover are discussed in the video above. The internal designs are set into a white <strong>background<\/strong>. Here the idea of <strong>pictorial space<\/strong> consists of flatness, which contrasts to Roman ideas of illusionistic pictorial space. The artists have chosen to show some <strong>overlap<\/strong> of interlacing <strong>lines<\/strong> to create shallow <strong>depth<\/strong>. On the top section in the center are <strong>abstracted<\/strong> zoomorphic (animal) creatures that have interweaving <strong>lines<\/strong> protruding from their snouts. On either side of the upper zoomorphic forms, are hexagon <strong>shapes<\/strong>. Within each hexagon <strong>shape<\/strong> are interlacing <strong>lines<\/strong> set within more geometric shaped structures (Ex. golden rectangle in the centers of the hexagons). On the bottom are more zoomorphic <strong>forms<\/strong> and two human figures. Using <strong>symmetry<\/strong>, each bottom side features a human <strong>figurative form<\/strong> in frontal view flanked by two animals in <strong>profile view<\/strong>. In the bottom center are birds of prey with smaller birds latched in their talons. The birds face each other to create a <strong>symmetrical<\/strong> design facing inward toward the center of the <strong>composition<\/strong>. The composition presented in the Purse Cover from the Sutton Hoo Ship Burial is complicated, heavily detailed, and features an <strong>iconographic<\/strong> program art historians and archaeologists are still working to discern.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"early-medieval-art-in-anglo-saxon-england-the-lindisfarne-gospels\">Early Medieval Art in Anglo-Saxon England: The Lindisfarne Gospels<\/h2>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=TYds0dsratI\r\n\r\nA medieval monk takes up a quill pen, fashioned from a goose feather, and dips it into a rich, black ink made from soot. Seated on a wooden chair in the scriptorium of Lindisfarne, an island off the coast of Northumberland in England, he stares hard at the words from a manuscript made in Italy. This book is his exemplar, the codex (a bound book, made from sheets of paper or parchment) from which he is to copy the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.\r\n\r\nFor about the next six years, he will copy this Latin. He will illuminate the gospel text with a weave of fantastic images\u2014 snakes that twist themselves into knots or birds, their curvaceous and overlapping forms creating the illusion of a third dimension into which a viewer can lose him or herself in meditative contemplation.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1785\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/crosscarpet-side.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1785\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image248.jpeg\" alt=\"Illuminated manuscript page featuring an intricate geometric and interlaced design with vibrant colors including red, blue, green, and gold. The artwork showcases symmetrical patterns, stylized animal motifs, and detailed border decorations typical of medieval religious texts. \" width=\"870\" height=\"624\" \/><\/a> Lindisfarne Gospels, John\u2019s cross-carpet page, folio 210v. (British Library, <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lindisfarne-gospels\/\">Smarthistory<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe book is a spectacular example of Insular or Hiberno-Saxon art\u2014works produced in the British Isles between 500\u2013900 C.E., a time of devastating invasions and political upheavals. Monks read from it during rituals at their Lindisfarne Priory on Holy Island, a Christian community that safeguarded the shrine of St Cuthbert, a bishop who died in 687 and whose relics were thought to have curative and miracle-working powers.\r\n\r\nA Northumbrian monk, very likely the bishop Eadfrith, illuminated the codex in the early 8th century. Two-hundred and fifty-nine written and recorded leaves include full-page portraits of each evangelist; highly ornamental \u201ccross-carpet\u201d pages, each of which features a large cross set against a background of ordered and yet teeming ornamentation; and the Gospels themselves, each introduced by an historiated initial. The codex also includes sixteen pages of canon tables set in arcades. Here correlating passages from each evangelist are set side-by-side, enabling a reader to compare narrations.\r\n\r\nIn 635 C.E. Christian monks from the Scottish island of Iona built a priory in Lindisfarne. More than a hundred and fifty years later, in 793, Vikings from the north attacked and pillaged the monastery, but survivors managed to transport the Gospels safely to Durham, a town on the Northumbrian coast about 75 miles west of its original location.\r\n\r\nWe glean this information from the manuscript itself, thanks to Aldred, a 10th-century priest from a priory at Durham. Aldred\u2019s colophon\u2014an inscription that relays information about the book\u2019s production\u2014informs us that Eadfrith, a bishop of Lindisfarne in 698 who died in 721, created the manuscript to honor God and St. Cuthbert. Aldred also inscribed a vernacular translation between the lines of the Latin text, creating the earliest known Gospels written in a form of English.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1786\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Lindisdarne-cross-combined.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1786\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image249.jpeg\" alt=\"Illuminated manuscript page featuring intricate Celtic knotwork and interlacing patterns in red, blue, green, and beige tones, divided into four quadrants with circular motifs and symmetrical designs. Two close-up insets highlight detailed knotwork in the upper left and lower right quadrants, emphasizing complex loops and stylized animal forms typical of medieval Insular art.\" width=\"870\" height=\"711\" \/><\/a> Lindisfarne Gospels, St Matthew, Cross-Carpet page, f.26v (British Library, <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lindisfarne-gospels\/\">Smarthistory<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nMatthew\u2019s cross-carpet page exemplifies Eadfrith\u2019s exuberance and genius. A mesmerizing series of repetitive knots and spirals is dominated by a centrally located cross. One can imagine devout monks losing themselves in the swirls and eddies of color during meditative contemplation of its patterns.\r\n\r\nCompositionally, Eadfrith stacked wine-glass shapes horizontally and vertically against his intricate weave of knots. On closer inspection many of these knots reveal themselves as snake-like creatures curling in and around tubular forms, mouths clamping down on their bodies. Chameleon-like, their bodies change colors: sapphire blue here, verdigris green there, and sandy gold in between. The sanctity of the cross, outlined in red with arms outstretched and pressing against the page edges, stabilizes the background\u2019s gyrating activity and turns the repetitive energy into a meditative force.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1787\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Lindisdarne-u-combined.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1787\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image250.jpeg\" alt=\"Illuminated manuscript page featuring intricate medieval calligraphy and decorative initials in red, blue, and gold tones. Close-up highlights detailed interlacing patterns and stylized letterforms typical of early medieval religious texts. \" width=\"870\" height=\"690\" \/><\/a> Lindisfarne Gospels, St Luke, incipit page, f.139 (British Library, <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lindisfarne-gospels\/\">Smarthistory<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nLikewise, Luke\u2019s incipit (incipit: it begins) page teems with animal life, spiraled forms, and swirling vortexes. In many cases Eadfrith\u2019s characteristic knots reveal themselves as snakes that move stealthily along the confines of a letter\u2019s boundaries.\r\n\r\nBlue pin-wheeled shapes rotate in repetitive circles, caught in the vortex of a large Q that forms Luke\u2019s opening sentence\u2014Quoniam quidem multi conati sunt ordinare narrationem. (Translation: As many have taken it in hand to set forth in order.)\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1788\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Lindisdarne-qswirls_cat.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1788\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image251.jpeg\" alt=\"Illuminated manuscript page featuring ornate, colorful initial letters with intricate Celtic knotwork and zoomorphic designs in red, blue, green, and gold hues. Close-up insets highlight detailed spiral patterns and stylized animal figures integrated into letterforms, showcasing medieval manuscript artistry and decoration techniques.\" width=\"870\" height=\"690\" \/><\/a> Lindisfarne Gospels, St Luke, incipit page, f.139 (British Library, <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lindisfarne-gospels\/\">Smarthistory<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nBirds also abound. One knot enclosed in a tall rectangle on the far right unravels into a blue heron\u2019s chest shaped like a large comma. Eadfrith repeats this shape vertically down the column, cleverly twisting the comma into a cat\u2019s forepaw at the bottom. The feline, who has just consumed the eight birds that stretch vertically up from its head, presses off this appendage acrobatically to turn its body 90 degrees; it ends up staring at the words RENARRATIONEM (part of the phrase -re narrationem).\r\n\r\nEadfrith also has added a host of tiny red dots that envelop words, except when they don\u2019t\u2014the letters \u201cNIAM\u201d of \u201cquoniam\u201d are composed of the vellum itself, the negative space now asserting itself as four letters.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1789\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Lindinfarne-apostle.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1789\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image252.jpeg\" alt=\"Illuminated manuscript page depicting Saint Luke seated on a chair, writing on a scroll with a winged ox above him, symbolizing his gospel. The artwork features a decorative red border with intricate knot designs in corners and Latin text identifying Saint Luke.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1185\" \/><\/a> Lindisfarne Gospels, St. Luke, portrait page (137v) (British Library, <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lindisfarne-gospels\/\">Smarthistory<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nLuke\u2019s incipit page is in marked contrast to his straightforward portrait page. Here Eadfrith seats the curly-haired, bearded evangelist on a red-cushioned stool against an unornamented background. Luke holds a quill in his right hand, poised to write words on a scroll unfurling from his lap. His feet hover above a tray supported by red legs. He wears a purple robe streaked with red, one that we can easily imagine on a late fourth or fifth century Roman philosopher.\u00a0The gold halo behind Luke\u2019s head indicates his divinity. Above his halo flies a blue-winged calf, its two eyes turned toward the viewer with its body in profile. The bovine clasps a green parallelogram between two forelegs, a reference to the Gospel.\r\n\r\nAccording to the historian Bede from the nearby monastery in Monkwearmouth (d. 735), this calf, or ox, symbolizes Christ\u2019s sacrifice on the cross. Bede assigns symbols for the other three evangelists as well, which Eadfrith duly includes in their respective portraits: Matthew\u2019s is a man, suggesting the human aspect of Christ; Mark\u2019s the lion, symbolizing the triumphant and divine Christ of the Resurrection; and John\u2019s the eagle, referring to Christ\u2019s second coming.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1790\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/crosscarpet-bird-copy.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1790\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image253.jpeg\" alt=\"Illuminated manuscript page featuring an intricate geometric and interlaced design with symmetrical patterns in red, blue, green, and gold hues. The artwork includes detailed knotwork, stylized animal motifs, and ornamental borders, characteristic of medieval Celtic or Insular art styles.\" width=\"870\" height=\"676\" \/><\/a> Lindisfarne Gospels, John\u2019s cross-carpet page, folio 210v. (British Library, <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lindisfarne-gospels\/\">Smarthistory<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nA dense interplay of stacked birds teem underneath the crosses of the carpet page that opens John\u2019s Gospel. One bird, situated in the upper left-hand quadrant, has blue-and-pink stripes in contrast to others that sport registers of feathers. Stripes had a negative association to the medieval mind, appearing chaotic and disordered. The insane wore stripes, as did prostitutes, criminals, jugglers, sorcerers, and hangmen. Might Eadfrith be warning his viewers that evil lurks hidden in the most unlikely of places? Or was Eadfrith himself practicing humility in avoiding perfection?\r\n\r\nAll in all, the variety and splendor of the Lindisfarne Gospels are such that even in reproduction, its images astound. Artistic expression and inspired execution make this codex a high point of early medieval art.\r\n<h2 id=\"early-medieval-art-the-viking-age\">Early Medieval Art: the Viking Age<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1791\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/oseberg-post-2-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1791\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image254.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an intricately carved wooden object shaped like a serpent or dragon head with an open mouth. The upper part features detailed openwork designs with intertwined patterns and figures, while the lower part is smooth and uncarved, resting on a wooden surface against a plain background.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1181\" \/><\/a> Animal head post found in burial mound near T\u00f8nsberg (Oseberg ship burial), 9th century, Oseberg style, wood\u00a0and paint (no longer existing)\u00a0(The Museum of Cultural History in Oslo; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Cf34567_443_C55000_123_Dyrehodestolpe_Oseberg_Barokkhodet_profil._Kulturhistorisk_museum,_UiO,_Oslo,_Norway_(Kirsten_Helgeland_CC_BY-SA_4.0)_cropped.jpg\">Kirsten Helgeland<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nModern representations of the Vikings\u00a0can be fun, but are often limited to sensationalized depictions of violent, raiding warriors. In reality,\u00a0Vikings were a small group of a larger community of people called the Norse (or Norsemen).\u00a0Few of these Norsemen raided, and many more\u00a0were merchants, farmers, and craftsmen. Political and mercenary work were among their enterprises, but exploration, colonization, and mercantilism also fueled their expeditions.\r\n\r\nWhat initiated the Viking Age? Scholars typically identify the Viking raid of the wealthy monastery on the island of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lindisfarne-gospels\/\">Lindisfarne<\/a>\u00a0in 793 (off the coast of England) as its starting point.\u00a0 During the Viking Age, which lasted from the late 8th century through the 11th century,\u00a0people from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden employed their maritime skills to journey around the globe. In addition to western Europe, they traveled to\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/medieval-europe-byzantium\/byzantine-2\/\">Byzantium<\/a>, West Asia, China, Russia, Eastern Europe, Northern Africa, Greenland, and even North America. Interacting with many cultures and settling in many geographic regions, the\u00a0Norse\u00a0were more cosmopolitan than they receive credit for.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-norse-visual-world\">The Norse visual world<\/h3>\r\nThe visual world was of great importance to the Norse. Significant resources were devoted to the creation of astonishing objects and the acquisition of foreign goods (through plunder and trade alike), and because of their highly mobile endeavors, Norse-made and Norse-influenced objects have been found across a wide geographic expanse.\r\n\r\nAn array of sophisticated, meticulously crafted objects survive. Fine imported materials were used, but local materials were also expertly handled by highly skilled craftspeople. Woodworking, for example, was an essential skill, and detailed wood carvings have been uncovered and restored. This material is susceptible to rot and fire, and so we can conclude that what survives today is a small fraction of the woodwork that once existed.\r\n\r\nObjects made from more tenacious materials\u2014like metal and stone\u2014comprise the majority of what art historians have left to examine. Metal jewelry, storage vessels, and other utilitarian objects have been uncovered from burials and hoards. Ivory and bone carvings have also been found, as have a limited number of precious textiles and stone carvings.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-styles-of-viking-art\">The styles of Viking Art<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1792\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1430\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/Viking-styles-version-2.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1792\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image255.jpeg\" alt=\"A horizontal timeline displays six Viking art styles from 775 C.E. to circa 1125 C.E., featuring labeled photographs of representative artifacts for Oseberg, Borre, Jellinge, Mammen, Ringerike, and Urnes styles. Each artifact showcases distinct design elements, such as intricate carvings, metalwork, and ornamental patterns, illustrating the evolution of Viking artistic expression over time.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"415\" \/><\/a> Viking Art Styles[\/caption]\r\n\r\nMany objects served practical and symbolic purposes, and their complex decorative patterns can be a challenge to untangle. Highly-stylized motifs weave around and flow into one another, so that following a single form from one end to the other can be difficult\u2014if there are end points at all. Imagery was created to communicate ideas about social relations, religious beliefs, and to recall a mythic past.\u00a0Although many objects served pagan intentions, Christian themes began to intermingle with them as new ideas filtered into the region.\u00a0Viking art\u00a0is visually distinct from contemporaneous cultures (as traded objects and integrated customs demonstrate), and represents\u00a0a unique way of thinking about the world.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1793\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/gripping-beast-ribbon-animal-3.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1793\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image256.jpeg\" alt=\"Various beasts are carved into the Oseberg ship\u2019s stern: a ribbon-animal (in blue, also called a streaming-animal); gripping-beasts rendered with humanoid heads (in red); and more ambiguous forms that echo the bodies of creatures seen at the prow (in green). Oseberg oak longship and detail of prow with ribbon-animal and gripping-beast motifs, 9th century, found in burial mound near T\u00f8nsberg \" width=\"870\" height=\"1066\" \/><\/a> Various beasts are carved into the Oseberg ship\u2019s stern: a ribbon-animal (in blue, also called a streaming-animal); gripping-beasts rendered with humanoid heads (in red); and more ambiguous forms that echo the bodies of creatures seen at the prow (in green). Oseberg oak longship and detail of prow with\u00a0ribbon-animal and gripping-beast motifs, 9th century, found in burial mound near T\u00f8nsberg\u00a0(Viking ship museum, Oslo; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/DhniJh\">Chad K<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe animal motifs that frequently embellished objects are actually a continuation of artistic traditions from previous periods. Two were particularly widespread: the \u201cribbon-animal\u201d and the \u201cgripping beast.\u201d We see both of these on the stern of the Oseberg longship.\r\n\r\nThe ribbon-animal was typically pictured as a highly abstracted creature with an elongated body and simplified features,\u00a0appearing individually and in pairs. In contrast, the gripping beast\u2014a fantastical creature with clearly defined limbs\u2014was anchored to the borders of designs and surrounding creatures. Other animal motifs developed throughout the period, and human figures were also present. These elements, which are thought to have had particular assigned meanings, are central to the categorization of Viking Age art styles.\r\n\r\nThe Viking Art styles are:\r\n<table><colgroup> <col style=\"width: 50%\" \/> <col style=\"width: 50%\" \/> <\/colgroup>\r\n<thead>\r\n<tr>\r\n<th>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Oseberg<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/th>\r\n<th>c. 775\/800\u2013875 C.E.<\/th>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/thead>\r\n<tbody>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Borre<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>c. 850\u2013975 C.E.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Jellinge<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>c. 900\u2013975 C.E.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Mammen<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>c. 960s\u20131000\/1025 C.E.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Ringerike<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>c. 990\u20131050 C.E.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<tr>\r\n<td>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Urnes<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<\/td>\r\n<td>c. 1050\u20131125 C.E.<\/td>\r\n<\/tr>\r\n<\/tbody>\r\n<\/table>\r\n<h3 id=\"oseberg-style\">Oseberg style<\/h3>\r\nThe Oseberg style was popular throughout mainland Scandinavia. Some of the most remarkable wood carving from the Viking Age was created in this style. A spectacular oak longship\u2014found within the burial mound from which the style\u2019s name was derived\u2014is one of the most studied works of the period. Featuring carvings of the ribbon-animal and gripping-beast motifs in fluid combinations on its prow, it served as an elite funerary vessel for two women.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1794\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1430\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/oseberg-ship-and-detail.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1794\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image257.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a Viking ship displayed indoors, showcasing its long, narrow wooden structure with a high, curved prow. Close-up highlights intricate carved dragon and animal motifs on the ship's bow, emphasizing craftsmanship and historical significance.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"557\" \/><\/a> Oseberg oak longship and detail of prow, 9th century, found in burial mound near T\u00f8nsberg\u00a0(Viking ship museum, Oslo; left photo: Petter Ulleland,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a> and right\u00a0photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/8VFwbh\">mararie<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Oseberg style shows a strong interplay between zoomorphic and geometric patterns that continues artistic traditions predating the Viking Age.\r\n\r\nIn Oseberg art, animal motifs\u2014which included birds, human faces sometimes thought to be masks (such as we see on the Oseberg burial cart),\u00a0and the gripping beast\u2014appear short and stocky, nearly equal in size, have rounded eyes, and tendril-like limbs.\u00a0These schematic figures are situated within fields that divide surfaces into clear segments and emphasize the balance and organization of images. With mixtures of high- and low-relief carvings flooding their surfaces in tightly interlacing ornament, very little background is visible.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1795\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"657\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1795\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image258.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a carved wooden figurehead featuring a stylized human face with large round eyes, a mustache, and an open mouth with vertical lines suggesting teeth. The figurehead is attached to a larger wooden structure with intricate carved patterns in the background, indicating traditional craftsmanship.\" width=\"657\" height=\"785\" \/> Bearded man, detail on the cart, before 800, wood, found in the Oseberg burial mound (Museum of Cultural History, photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Bearded_man_carved_cart_Oseberg_ship_burial_Norway.jpg\">Helen Simonsson<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Oseberg ship burial included carved wooden posts, decorated\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.khm.uio.no\/english\/visit-us\/viking-ship-museum\/exhibitions\/oseberg\/the-sleighs\/\">sleds<\/a>, and an<a href=\"https:\/\/www.khm.uio.no\/english\/visit-us\/viking-ship-museum\/exhibitions\/oseberg\/the-oseberg-cart\/index.html\">\u00a0oak wagon<\/a>\u00a0that may have been made by master craftsmen from a nearby workshop. For example, the \u201cAcademician\u2019s\u201d animal head post is one of five wooden animal-headed posts found in the Oseberg ship burial.\u00a0Although the purpose of these objects remain unclear, their detailed carvings demonstrate advanced woodworking skills.\r\n\r\nAlso included was a set of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/oseberg-tapestry.jpg\">tapestries<\/a>\u00a0that, despite their poor condition, are believed to depict battle scenes and a religious procession.\u00a0They illustrate many objects found in the grave, indicating that material goods were important for performing customs in life and in death.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1796\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"458\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/academicians-head-scaled-1-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1796\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image259.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a carved wooden sculpture featuring a long, curved neck with a detailed animal head, possibly a dragon or serpent, at the top. The head showcases intricate lattice patterns and textured scales, mounted on a rectangular wooden base with a small protruding handle.\" width=\"458\" height=\"814\" \/><\/a> The \u201cAcademician\u2019s\u201d animal head post, 9th century, wood, found in burial mound near T\u00f8nsberg (Oseberg ship burial) (Museum of Cultural History, Oslo; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Cf34567_400_C55000_100_Dyrehodestolpe_Oseberg_Akademikeren._Kulturhistorisk_museum_UiO_Oslo_Norway_(Kirsten_Helgeland_CC_BY-SA_4.0)_cropped.jpg\">Kirsten Helgeland<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"borre-style\">Borre style<\/h3>\r\nOverlapping with the Oseberg style is the Borre style, which was also popular on the mainland. However, unlike the Oseberg style, Borre artistic conventions spread to the British Isles and the Baltic region as the Norsemen traveled both East and West. Exchanges between local and foreign artistic customs can be seen on objects found in these areas (with less overt characteristics appearing in the British Isles and more emphatic characteristics appearing to the east of the Baltic Sea).\r\n\r\nBorre objects swarm\u00a0the viewer with\u00a0d\u00e9cor. Forms are arranged in closed compositions with tight, knot-like interlacing that almost fully obscures the background. Animal motifs appear comparatively more naturalistic, with squat, relaxed bodies. Spirals are introduced to represent hip joints, and figures may be reduced to decorative heads or appear as fully in-the-round forms.\r\n\r\nOn a silver disc-brooch from Gotland, a series of animal and human figures protrude outward into space. In a motif rarely seen outside of this style, the animals\u2019 heads are oriented backward, their tongues licking their backs. Alternating between them are four human figures who face the object\u2019s center, gripping as of yet unidentified protrusions from their necks.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1797\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1797\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image260.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate gold spur featuring intricate filigree work and detailed patterns along its curved structure. The spur displays symmetrical designs with small decorative elements and a clasp mechanism at one end.\" width=\"870\" height=\"489\" \/> Gold spur from Verne Kloster in Norway, 10th century, Borre style, gold (The Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe \u201cring chain\u201d pattern, which combines ribbon shapes to create a continuous band, is another Borre style trend. It is seen on small metal objects, such as the gold spur from Verne Kloster, and seems to have influenced stone carving traditions on the Isle of Man and in northwest England. This gold spur allowed a rider to control the movements of a horse. Featuring\u00a0granulation\u00a0and\u00a0filigree\u00a0details, along with the \u201cring chain\u201d pattern, it is far more complicated than what is normally found in the Borre style.\r\n<h3 id=\"jellinge-style\">Jellinge style<\/h3>\r\nSitting chronologically between the Borre style and the soon-to-be-discussed Mammen style, the Jellinge style is a malleable one. It appears on a diverse body of objects and can share features with the previous and subsequent styles, leaving it difficult to define as a separate movement. It was named for a cast silver cup that was found in a royal burial mound in Jelling, Jutland, Denmark (an \u201ce\u201d was accidentally added to the style\u2019s name in the nineteenth century). Despite this mishap, this unique spelling helps art historians differentiate the style from the place.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1798\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"734\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/jelling-cup.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1798\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image261.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient metal goblet with intricate engraved designs featuring intertwined animal motifs and geometric patterns. The goblet has a wide rim, a slightly flared body, and a round pedestal base, showcasing craftsmanship and artistic style from a historical period.\" width=\"734\" height=\"784\" \/><\/a> Silver Cup, 958\/959, Jellinge style, found in Jelling, Jutland, Denmark (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.natmus.dk\/historical-knowledge\/denmark\/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad\/the-viking-age\/the-monuments-at-jelling\/jelling-and-the-new-faith\/\">National Museum of Denmark<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWe can see this style\u2019s main motif around its belly: a set of interlacing creatures that form a row of fluid, S-shaped forms. Within their bodies are single rows of beading (dot-like metal forms) and their feet resemble mitts. Lappets, the protrusions that look like ponytails, extend from their heads, distinguishing them from creatures of the Borre style.\r\n\r\nCompositions in this style open up and expand, with the backgrounds becoming more visible. The anatomy of animal and human figures is simpler, with bodies portrayed as solid masses defined by\u00a0individual or double contour\u00a0lines. Hip joints are represented by spirals, while ankles and wrists are defined by small, geometric segments\u00a0like those seen on the Jellinge cup. Heads have round or almond-shaped eyes and lips are apt to curl, while ribbon-animals are more prominent and the gripping beast fades.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1799\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/york-scaled-1-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1799\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image262.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient stone tablet featuring intricate carved patterns arranged in two horizontal bands. The tablet shows signs of age with visible cracks and weathering, highlighting detailed interwoven designs.\" width=\"870\" height=\"410\" \/><\/a> Grave slab with Jellinge style elements, 10th century, gritstone, 26.8 x 37 cm, from the cemetery beneath York Minster (Image courtesy of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.yorkmuseumstrust.org.uk\/index.php?page_id=3591&amp;id=531%3AYORYM_1985_25-1.JPG&amp;search_query=bGltaXQ9MTYmQ0wlNUIwJTVEPUFyY2hhZW9sb2d5JkNMJTVCMSU1RD1Db3N0dW1lK2FuZCtUZXh0aWxlcyZWViU1QjAlNUQ9JkZOPSUyQSZHcyU1Qm9wZXJhdG9yJTVEPSUzRSUzRCZHcyU1QnZhbHVlJTVEPTcwMCZHZSU1Qm9wZXJhdG9yJTVEPSUzQyUzRCZHZSU1QnZhbHVlJTVEPTEwNjY=\">York Museums Trust<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Jellinge style expanded as far as the Volga Bulgars and the Lower Volga River, along the Caspian Sea. It influenced art in western Europe, where stone sculptures from York show its considerable influence. A 10-century grave slab from the cemetery beneath York Minster, for instance, integrates the Jellinge style ornament with the\u00a0Anglican\u00a0tradition of marking burials with recumbent monuments.\r\n<h3 id=\"mammen-style\">Mammen style<\/h3>\r\nNamed for a ceremonial axe head found near the Danish village of Mammen, this innovative style was popularized as the \u201ccourt\u201d style of King Harald Bluetooth (King of Denmark and Norway who ruled from c. 958\u2013986). Its compositions span elongated waves and terminate in loose tendrils. We also see foliate motifs that were borrowed from other European traditions.\u00a0A few of the qualities associated with the Jellinge style are exaggerated in it, like geometric shapes that segment the\u00a0wrists, ankles, and other body parts\u00a0of animals.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1800\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/mammen-axe.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1800\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image263.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an intricately engraved metal axe head featuring detailed swirling patterns and animal motifs. The axe head has a broken handle area with a visible gold band near the top, highlighting craftsmanship and decorative techniques.\" width=\"870\" height=\"449\" \/><\/a> Mammen-style axe (side with a possible tree), 970\u201371, inlaid with silver, from Mammen (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.natmus.dk\/historical-knowledge\/denmark\/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad\/the-viking-age\/the-grave-from-mammen\/an-axe-with-double-meaning\/#:~:text=One%20of%20the%20most%20magnificent,of%20iron%20with%20silver%20inlay.&amp;text=The%20motifs%20on%20the%20axe,or%20the%20pagan%20tree%20Yggdrasil.\">National Museum of Denmark<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThis can be seen at the base of the bird\u2019s neck on the Mammen axe, along with ornamental beading throughout its body. Its limbs\u00a0and wings are represented as expanding coils. Some background is visible, with glimpses of the underlying surface peeking out from beneath lively, energetic designs.\r\n\r\nEach side of the Mammen axe head is inlaid with silver: on one side, a set of winding tendrils; and, on the other, a fabulous bird loops through even more tendrils and has a prominent spiral hip joint. Axes were very important to the Norsemen, who used them for domestic purposes and in battle, but the inlays of the Mammen axe indicate that it was a ceremonial object.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1801\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/runestones-side-1.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1801\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image264.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph and illustration of a runestone featuring intricate Viking-age carvings with interwoven animal and serpent motifs. The illustration highlights key design elements in red, yellow, and purple, and includes runic inscriptions at the base, emphasizing the stone's artistic and historical significance.\" width=\"870\" height=\"519\" \/><\/a> Jelling stone with traits of the Mammen style, 970 and circa 986, raised by King Bluetooth. Left: side B with Great Beast motif (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Jelling_gr_Stein_2.JPG\">Casiopeia<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>); right: diagram of side B showing Great Beast motif[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOften discussed are the\u00a0runestones\u00a0at Jelling (in Denmark), which feature traits of the Mammen style.\u00a0It is in this style that a magnificent motif emerges: the Great Beast. We can see it on one side of the Jelling Stone, standing above a runic inscription that references his conquest of Norway and the religious conversion of Denmark.\r\n\r\nThe Great Beast is an amalgamation of several animals; it has features that appear similar to horns or antlers protruding from its head, and what appears to be a mane falling from its long neck.\u00a0Its feet\u00a0are segmented with claws,\u00a0and in some representations\u2014like the greater Jelling stone\u2014serpents may wind around its body to create\u00a0a dynamic interplay between the two motifs. The creature has been interpreted as a symbol of power.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1802\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/Christ-side-Jelling-runestone.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1802\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image265.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph showing a side-by-side comparison of an ancient runestone before and after color restoration. The left side displays the weathered, unpainted stone with faint carvings, while the right side reveals vibrant blue, red, yellow, and white painted patterns and figures, highlighting intricate Norse designs and a Christ figure.\" width=\"870\" height=\"531\" \/><\/a> Jelling stone with traits of the Mammen style, 970 and circa 986, raised by King Bluetooth. Left: side A showing Christ bound in tendrils (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Jelling_gr_Stein_3.JPG\">Casiopeia<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>); right: side A with reconstruction of original polychromy (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:The_Jelling_Stone_-_VIKING_exhibition_at_the_National_Museum_of_Denmark_-_Photo_The_National_Museum_of_Denmark_(9084035770).jpg\">National Museum of Denmark<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nCarved with runic inscriptions, these monumental stones were raised by King Bluetooth in memory of his deceased parents.\u00a0As a Christian convert, Bluetooth was responsible for Denmark\u2019s increasing acceptance and adoption of the religion.\u00a0He had one side of the larger stone depict Christ bound in tendrils that end in pronounced foliates (leaf forms). With an inscription surrounded by serpentine ornament on its third side (not illustrated), this object is exceptionally detailed for a runestone.\r\n\r\nThree particularly fine examples of the Mammen style survived into the modern era: the Cammin casket found in Kamen Pomorski, Poland, the Bamberg casket of southern Germany (now located in Munich), and the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/Leon-reliquary.png\">Le\u00f3n reliquary of Spain<\/a>, which is the only known Viking object to be found on the Iberian Peninsula.\u00a0These three examples demonstrate how Mammen-style objects have been found in many regions, attesting yet again to the far reach of Norse visual culture.\r\n<h3 id=\"ringerike-style\">Ringerike style<\/h3>\r\nThe Mammen style was short-lived, but the subsequent style\u2014called Ringerike\u2014was energized by its ingenuity. Continuing to use the double contour lines and spiral hip joints seen previously, Ringerike ornament is tightly composed. Bird motifs become more common and the Great Beast appears in full force, but neither feature the beaded ornamentation of Jellinge and Mammen creatures.\r\n\r\nThe adoption of European influences into Norse artistic conventions are visible in the Ringerike style. Diverse uses of foliates and tendrils, for example, are features that were taken from Frankish and British influences and modified to suit Norse sensibilities.\u00a0Appearing in clusters of varying thicknesses, tendrils grow outward from animal bodies. This can be seen on several weathervanes (such as the Heggen weathervane), which were customarily gilded, fixed to the prows of ships, and later, repositioned on the roofs of churches. Their borders feature friezes of vegetal motifs, and on their plates are beasts\u2014including birds and the Great Beast\u2014tangled within foliates.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1803\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"679\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1803\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image266.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient carved stone relief depicting two stylized animals with spiral and linear patterns, possibly representing mythological or symbolic figures. The relief is divided into four broken pieces fitted together, showing detailed engravings and a border framing the scene.\" width=\"679\" height=\"577\" \/> Stone from sarcophagus at St. Paul\u2019s churchyard, London (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ringerike_St_Paul_runetone.jpg\">David Beard MA<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nNew variations on the Great Beast appear in the Ringerike style. The Great Beast may be shown with other Great Beasts, with multiple snakes, or with monsters we cannot always identify. A carved stone slab that was found at St. Paul\u2019s churchyard in London, for instance, shows the Great Beast with long tendrils\u00a0that curl at the far end (a variation of the lappets seen in the earlier Jellinge style)\u00a0forming tendril-like horns and tongue. It also has spiral hip joints. Its body is entwined with a serpent and another, smaller creature wraps around its forelimb. The carved stone slab comes from the end of a box-tomb. The runic inscription carved into its side suggests that the carver was Swedish.\r\n\r\nDue to the growing popularity of Christianity, funerary customs shift and there are fewer grave goods in the Ringerike style. Architecture, weapons, and ivory carvings become the more prevalent remains, and runestones\u2014although less detailed than the greater stone raised at Jelling\u2014become more common.\r\n<h3 id=\"urnes-style\">Urnes style<\/h3>\r\nIn the last phase of Viking Age art, the Urnes style, there is a turn to elegant, schematic forms. Animals are portrayed with tapered anatomical features and in regal stances.\r\n\r\nThe Urnes style has three primary motifs: a standing, four-legged animal resembling the Great Beast; a snake-like creature but with a single foreleg and\/or hind leg; and a thin ribbon.\u00a0Perhaps associated with the growth of Christianity, there was an increased esteem\u00a0for this style across mainland Scandinavia.\u00a0Surviving examples of it can be seen on architecture and runestones, each of which could use pagan and Christian iconography simultaneously.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1804\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/church-and-detail-carving-urnes-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1804\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image267.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a traditional wooden stave church situated in a grassy graveyard with mountains and a lake in the background, showcasing historic Scandinavian architecture. Close-up photograph of intricate wooden carvings featuring interwoven animal and abstract designs, highlighting detailed craftsmanship on the church's exterior.\" width=\"870\" height=\"448\" \/><\/a> Left: the Urnes Stave Church with a view toward the north portal (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/gP87qf\">Evelina Ander<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>); right: detail from the Urnes Stave Church north portal, c. 1132, wood, Ornes, Norway (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Carvings_in_north_wall_portal,_Urnes_Stave_Church-1.jpg\">Bj\u00f8rn Erik Pedersen<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAlthough its origins are likely Swedish, this style is associated with a stave church in the Norwegian village of Urnes. Its relief carvings, which fully embody the style\u2019s characteristics, have been the subject of art-historical interpretation for some time. Their rhythmic compositions have elegant swooping, symmetrical, and interlace designs, and the background is more clearly visible.\r\n\r\nAlthough the use of spiral hip joints persist, the proportions of creatures\u2019 bodies curve and swell in a fashion that differentiates them from previous styles. Eyes are enlarged, nearly filling the heads, and lower jaws are given hook-like extensions. The feet of the Great Beast standing next to the door gracefully end in wisps that rest between delicate vegetal motifs. Although the structure is Christian in function, these decorative forms remain indebted to pre-Christian styles.\r\n\r\nAs the Norsemen traveled, traded, and settled across new regions, this style\u2019s influences were carried\u00a0with them. Urnes-styled objects appear in the Baltic, and examples such as the Pitney Brooch demonstrate a localized adaptation of it in England. In Ireland,\u00a0the Norse re-occupation of Dublin fueled artistic interest in the Urnes style, with\u00a0metal and stone objects exhibiting its features.\u00a0When looking at gold filigree ornamenting the bell shrine of St. Patrick, for example, precisely-crafted patterns demonstrate interest in geometry and rhythmic compositions. The style\u2019s\u00a0acceptance there, however, came just as it was dying in Scandinavia.\r\n\r\nThere is much more to\u00a0Norse\u00a0art than style. While objects were made by skilled workers, they were also situated within a complex society\u00a0whose endeavors\u00a0affected a vast geographic expanse. Those discussed here provide only a small window into the Viking Age.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-viking-age-comes-to-an-end\">The Viking Age comes to an end<\/h3>\r\nPrior to the 10th century, Scandinavian regions were considered peripheral to western Europe. It was from the 10th through the 13th centuries that the introduction of Christianity and the introduction of European-style monarchy\u00a0eventually\u00a0brought the Viking Age to a close. The Ringerike and Urnes styles\u00a0described above\u00a0flourished through this time, until the European\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-art\/\">Romanesque style<\/a>\u00a0was popularized,\u00a0displacing pagan traditions.\r\n<h2 id=\"understanding-timelines-in-the-middle-ages\">Understanding Timelines in the Middle Ages<\/h2>\r\nThe overlapping timeline of artistic production in Western Europe during the Middle Ages can be confusing. The Viking Age lasted from the late 8th through the 11th century. When Vikings raided the monastery at Lindisfarne on the island of Iona in 793, the <em>Lindisfarne Gospels<\/em> illuminated manuscript was almost 100 years old. As such, the <em>Lindisfarne Gospels<\/em> completed in the Hiberno-Saxon style with its abstraction, interlacing lines, and animal forms predates the Viking era. While the Vikings were in the Oseberg period with its zoomorphic forms and abstract patterns, Charlemagne was being crowned emperor by the Pope in 800 C.E. and began to model his reign after the 4<sup>th<\/sup> century Roman \u201cChristian\u201d Emperor Constantine. It is not until the 10<sup>th<\/sup> through 13<sup>th<\/sup> centuries that the Viking world became increasingly Christian. The last phase of art in the Viking Age is classified as the Urnes period (c. 1050\u20131125 C.E.). By 1024 C.E., both the Carolingian Renaissance introduced by Charlemagne and the proceeding Ottonian rule of the Holy Roman Empire had concluded. Western Europe then enters the Romanesque period around 1000 C.E.\r\n<h2 id=\"charlemagne-and-the-carolingian-revival\">Charlemagne and The Carolingian revival<\/h2>\r\nThe video presents a brief introduction to Charlemagne\u2019s military campaigns and the cultural revival that he supported.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=pyDPJENZOs0\r\n<h2 id=\"carolingian-art-an-introduction\">Carolingian art, an introduction<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1805\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/CharlmagneMap-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1805\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image268.jpeg\" alt=\"Map showing territorial divisions in Europe and surrounding regions during Charlemagne's era, highlighting King of the Franks' domain in purple, Lombards in brown, Papal States in red, Umayyad Caliphate in yellow, and Byzantium in green. Key cities Aachen, Rome, and Constantinople are marked with red dots, with a statue of Charlemagne depicted on the left side.\" width=\"870\" height=\"521\" \/><\/a> Map of Europe at the time of Charlemagne[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/charlemagne-part-1-of-2\/\">Charlemagne<\/a>, King of the Franks and later Holy Roman Emperor, instigated a cultural revival known as the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/charlemagne-part-2-of-2\/\">Carolingian Renaissance<\/a>. This revival used\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-christian-art-and-architecture-after-constantine\/\">Constantine\u2019s Christian empire<\/a>\u00a0as its model, which flourished between 306 and 337. Constantine was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity and left behind an impressive legacy of military strength and artistic patronage.\r\n\r\nCharlemagne saw himself as the new Constantine and instigated this revival by writing his\u00a0<em>Admonitio generalis<\/em>\u00a0(789) and\u00a0<em>Epistola de litteris colendis<\/em>\u00a0(c.794\u2013797). In the\u00a0<em>Admonitio generalis<\/em>, Charlemagne legislates church reform, which he believes will make his subjects more moral and in the\u00a0<em>Epistola de litteris colendis<\/em>, a letter to Abbot Baugulf of Fulda, he outlines his intentions for cultural reform. Most importantly, he invited the greatest scholars from all over Europe to come to court and give advice for his renewal of politics, church, art and literature.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1806\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/12\/51899982927_492b562517_o.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1806\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image269.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an Palatine Chapel interior featuring a domed ceiling adorned with golden mosaics and religious figures. The structure includes striped arches, tall columns, and stained glass windows, highlighting intricate architectural and artistic details.\" width=\"870\" height=\"574\" \/><\/a> Odo of Metz, Palatine Chapel Interior, Aachen, 805 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2n5dYKR\">byzantologist<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nCarolingian art survives in manuscripts, sculpture, architecture and other religious artifacts produced during the period 780\u2013900. These artists worked exclusively for the emperor, members of his court, and the bishops and abbots associated with the court. Geographically, the revival extended through present-day France, Switzerland, Germany and Austria.\r\n\r\nCharlemagne commissioned the architect Odo of Metz to construct a palace and chapel in Aachen, Germany. The chapel was consecrated in 805 and is known as the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/palatine-chapel-aachen\/\">Palatine Chapel<\/a>. This space served as the seat of Charlemagne\u2019s power and still houses his throne today.\r\n\r\nThe Palatine Chapel is octagonal with a dome, recalling the shape of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/san-vitale\/\">San Vitale<\/a>\u00a0in Ravenna, Italy (completed in 548), but was built with barrel and groin vaults, which are distinctively late Roman methods of construction. The chapel is perhaps the best surviving example of Carolingian architecture and probably influenced the design of later European palace chapels.\r\n\r\nCharlemagne had his own scriptorium, or center for copying and illuminating manuscripts, at Aachen. Under the direction of Alcuin of York, this scriptorium produced a new script known as Carolingian miniscule. Prior to this development, writing styles or scripts in Europe were localized and difficult to read. A book written in one part of Europe could not be easily read in another, even when the scribe and reader were both fluent in Latin. Knowledge of Carolingian miniscule spread from Aachen was universally adopted, allowing for clearer written communication within Charlemagne\u2019s empire. Carolingian miniscule was the most widely used script in Europe for about 400 years.\r\n\r\nFigurative art from this period is easy to recognize. Unlike the flat, two-dimensional work of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-christian-art\/\">Early Christian<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/periods-of-the-byzantine-empire\/#:~:text=Early%20Byzantium%3A%20c.%20330%E2%80%93843\">Early Byzantine<\/a>\u00a0artists, Carolingian artists sought to restore the third dimension. They used classical drawings as their models and tried to create more convincing illusions of space.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1807\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"917\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1807\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image270.png\" alt=\"Medieval illuminated manuscript page depicting a seated evangelist with a halo, writing in a large book on a lectern. The scene includes a lion in the upper left corner, intricate border patterns in blue, red, and gold, and Latin text partially visible around the figure.\" width=\"917\" height=\"1322\" \/> St. Mark from the\u00a0<em>Godescalc Gospel Lectionary<\/em>, folio 1v., c. 781\u201383 (<a href=\"https:\/\/archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr\/ark:\/12148\/cc34648s\">Biblioth\u00e8que nationale de France<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThis development is evident in tracing author portraits in illuminated manuscripts. The\u00a0<em>Godescalc Gospel Lectionary<\/em>, commissioned by Charlemagne and his wife Hildegard, was made circa 781\u201383 during his reign as King of the Franks and before the beginning of the Carolingian Renaissance. In the portrait of St. Mark, the artist employs typical Early Byzantine artistic conventions. The face is heavily modeled in brown, the drapery folds fall in stylized patterns and there is little or no shading. The seated position of the evangelist would be difficult to reproduce in real life, as there are spatial inconsistencies. The left leg is shown in profile and the other leg is show straight on. This author portrait is typical of its time.\r\n\r\nThe\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/saint-matthew-from-the-ebbo-gospels\/\"><em>Ebbo Gospels<\/em><\/a>\u00a0were made c. 816\u201335 in the Benedictine Abbey of Hautvillers for Ebbo, Archbishop of Rheims. The author portrait of St. Mark is characteristic of Carolingian art and the Carolingian Renaissance. The artist used distinctive frenzied lines to create the illusion of the evangelist\u2019s body shape and position. The footstool sits at an awkward unrealistic angle, but there are numerous attempts by the artist to show the body as a three-dimensional object in space. The right leg is tucked under the chair and the artist tries to show his viewer, through the use of curved lines and shading, that the leg has form. There is shading and consistency of perspective. The evangelist sitting on the chair strikes a believable pose.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1808\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1000\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1808\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image271.png\" alt=\"A medieval illuminated manuscript illustration depicting a seated man in a white robe holding a scroll, looking upward toward a winged lion in the upper right corner. The scene is framed by a decorative border with floral motifs and a red and gold pattern, suggesting a religious or scholarly context.\" width=\"1000\" height=\"1316\" \/> St. Mark from the\u00a0<em>Ebbo Gospels<\/em>, folio 60v., c. 816\u201335 (<a href=\"https:\/\/gallica.bnf.fr\/ark:\/12148\/btv1b8458375p\/f128.item.r=evangeliaire%20de%20ebon\">Biblioth\u00e8que Nationale de France<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nCharlemagne, like Constantine before him, left behind an almost mythic legacy. The Carolingian Renaissance marked the last great effort to revive classical culture before the Late Middle Ages. Charlemagne\u2019s empire was led by his successors until the late ninth century. In early tenth century, the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ottonian-art-an-introduction\/\">Ottonians<\/a>\u00a0rose to power and espoused different artistic ideals.\r\n<h2 id=\"carolingian-art-palatine-chapel-aachen\">Carolingian Art: Palatine Chapel, Aachen<\/h2>\r\nThe octagonal plan references earlier churches and symbolizes regeneration. Was Charlemagne\u2019s throne at its center?\r\n<h3 id=\"carolingian-art-and-the-classical-revival\">Carolingian art and the classical revival<\/h3>\r\nThe Palatine Chapel at Aachen is the most well-known and best-preserved\u00a0Carolingian\u00a0building. It is also an excellent example of the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/charlemagne-part-2-of-2\/\">classical revival style<\/a>\u00a0that characterized the architecture of Charlemagne\u2019s reign. The exact dates of the chapel\u2019s construction are unclear, but we do know that this palace chapel was dedicated to Christ and the Virgin Mary by Pope Leo III in a ceremony in 805, five years after Leo promoted Charlemagne from king to Holy Roman Emperor. The dedication took place about twenty years after Charlemagne moved the capital of the Frankish kingdom from Ravenna, in what is now Italy, to Aachen, in what is now Germany.\r\n\r\nIn the construction of his chapel, Charlemagne made several strategic choices that linked his building to the legacies of ancient Rome and the fourth-century emperor Constantine. The Emperor Constantine was important because he was the first Christian emperor of Rome. The location for the new building was selected because it was an historic Roman site with hot springs that were used for bathing. The materials used for the chapel also invoked Rome; among them were columns and marble stones that Pope Hadrian permitted Charlemagne to transfer from Rome and Ravenna to Aachen around the year 798. A\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/pilgrimage-routes-and-the-cult-of-the-relic\/\">relic<\/a>\u00a0of the cloak of St. Martin was installed in the church at its consecration\u2014the choice of a\u00a0fourth-century Roman soldier who had a vision of Jesus after sharing his cloak with a beggar was another way to reinforce the link of Charlemagne\u2019s rule with Rome.\r\n<h3 id=\"two-important-models-the-church-of-the-holy-sepulchre-in-jerusalem-and-san-vitale-in-ravenna\">Two important models (the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and San Vitale in Ravenna)<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1809\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/floorplans.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1809\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image272.jpeg\" alt=\"Floorplans diagram displays architectural layouts of three historic religious buildings: Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem (begun 325 C.E.), Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna (consecrated 547 C.E.), and Palatine Chapel in Aachen (consecrated 804 C.E.). Each black-and-white floorplan highlights structural elements like circular and polygonal shapes, apses, and nave arrangements, illustrating architectural evolution across centuries.\" width=\"870\" height=\"426\" \/><\/a> Floorplans of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem; Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna; and Palatine Chapel, Aachen[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe chapel\u2019s classical style also referenced its Roman imperial lineage, particularly in its imitation of two significant Christian buildings: the\u00a0Holy Sepulchre\u00a0in Jerusalem and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/san-vitale-2\/\">San Vitale<\/a>\u00a0in Ravenna. The Holy Sepulchre\u2019s building program was started in 325 C.E. by Constantine\u2019s mother, Saint Helena, and completed in 335.\u00a0The\u00a0centralized plan\u00a0and surrounding\u00a0ambulatory\u00a0and upper\u00a0gallery\u00a0is echoed in the plan of the Palatine Chapel. However, the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem is composed of two main buildings\u2014in addition to the rotunda that covers the tomb is a similar structure over the traditionally-accepted location of the crucifixion. The Holy Sepulchre may also have been the inspiration for the lion-head knockers of the chapel\u2019s bronze doors (below).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1810\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/aachenlion.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1810\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image273.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate metal door featuring a detailed lion head door knocker with an open mouth and intricate decorative border. The door has a textured surface with vertical panels and another smaller lion head knocker visible in the background.\" width=\"870\" height=\"543\" \/><\/a> Door (detail), Palatine Chapel, Aachen (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:AachenerDom1652PortalLoewe.jpg\">Bojin<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nBecause it didn\u2019t receive extensive additions like the Holy Sepulchre, the San Vitale Chapel at Ravenna is probably the best comparison for what the Palatine Chapel would have looked like before its Gothic renovations. San Vitale\u00a0is a small octagonal church, with a centralized plan and a two-story ambulatory (below).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1811\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/vitale.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1811\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image274.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a church interior showcasing Roman and Byzantine architectural elements with tall arches, ornate mosaics, and large arched windows allowing natural light. The space features detailed wall decorations, vaulted ceilings, and a prominent apse with intricate artwork and multiple window panes.\" width=\"870\" height=\"569\" \/><\/a> San Vitale, Ravenna, begun in 526 under Ostrogothic rule, consecrated in 547, completed 548 (Photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/palatine-chapel-aachen\/\">Smarthistory<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe octagonal plan of the Palatine Chapel (see plans above) not only recalled that of its two most significant models, but also participated in the tradition of early Christian mausoleums and baptisteries, where the\u00a0eight sides were understood to be symbolic of regeneration\u2014referencing Christ\u2019s resurrection eight days after Palm Sunday. Its original dome was also based on classical models and bore an\u00a0apocalyptic\u00a0mosaic program, consisting of the\u00a0<em>agnus dei,\u00a0<\/em>or Lamb of God (which is, symbolically, Jesus Christ), surrounded by the tetramorph (symbols of the four Gospel writers) and the twenty-four elders described in Revelation 4:4. The\u00a0<em>agnus dei\u00a0<\/em>image was later obstructed by the installation of a chandelier.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1812\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/aix_dom_int_vue_cote.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1812\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image275.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate cathedral interior showcasing Roman inspired architecture with striped marble columns, arched windows, and a large circular chandelier. Upper walls feature detailed mosaics of robed figures on a gold background, highlighting religious artistry and historical craftsmanship.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1188\" \/><\/a> Palatine Chapel interior (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Aix_dom_int_vue_cote.jpg\">Velvet<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe octagonal centralized plan of the Palatine Chapel is unique among Carolingian chapels; this may have been because, unlike a longitudinal plan which created a sense of processional direction toward the apse and altar, a centralized plan did not place special emphasis on the altar (and therefore may not have been as effective liturgically for the purpose of a chapel). That said, it does seem to have established\u00a0an association of Charlemagne with Christ; some scholars believe that Charlemagne\u2019s marble throne (below) was originally located in the center of the octagon on the first floor, that is, directly below the image of the\u00a0<em>agnus dei,\u00a0<\/em>thereby creating a kind of visual link between the emperor and the Christ.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1813\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/throne.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1813\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image276.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a stone throne with a stepped platform and a small altar table with two candles, set inside a historic building with marble walls and arched ceilings. The area is cordoned off with black posts and chains, highlighting the throne's significance as a ceremonial or religious artifact.\" width=\"870\" height=\"854\" \/><\/a> Charlemagne\u2019s throne, Palatine Chapel, Aachen (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Aachener_Dom_BW_2016-07-09_13-53-18.jpg\">Berthold Werner<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nBy presenting his capital at Aachen as a new Rome and himself as a new Constantine through the careful appropriation of late antique artwork and architecture, Charlemagne was not simply making a positive assertion about himself as ruler; he was also implicitly contrasting his reign with that of the Eastern Empire (the Byzantines), a negative stance that was also expressed around the same time in the\u00a0<em>Opus Caroli Regis contra Synodum\u00a0<\/em>(i.e., \u201c<em>The Work of King Charles against the Synod<\/em>), a detailed response to the\u00a0Second Council of Nicaea, written on his behalf by Theodulf of Orl\u00e9ans.\r\n\r\nCharlemagne\u2019s body was interred in the Palatine Chapel after his death in 814. The building would continue to be used for coronation ceremonies for another 700 years\u2014well into the sixteenth century.\r\n\r\nMajor additions to the chapel began in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, significantly changing the building\u2019s profile and footprint with exterior chapels. After several fires in the seventeenth century, the dome was rebuilt and heightened.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1814\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"527\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/aachenout-1.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1814\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image277.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Palatine Chapel exterior featuring a large, ornate dome with multiple arched windows and intricate architectural details. The structure is set against a blue sky with scattered clouds, and green foliage is visible in the foreground.\" width=\"527\" height=\"800\" \/><\/a> Palatine Chapel exterior, Aachen, consecrated 805, Carolingian structure visible (lower two stories) (photo: CaS2000, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"ottonian-art-an-introduction\">Ottonian art, an introduction<\/h2>\r\nAfter Charlemagne\u2019s legacy had begun to die out, the warlike tribes in what is now Germany (then Saxony) banded together to elect a king from among their nobility. In 919 C.E., they chose Henry the Liudolfing, the son of a high-ranking duke, a brilliant military strategist and a well-respected leader. Henry, dubbed \u201cthe Fowler\u201d because of his hobby of bird hunting, led the Saxon armies to a number of decisive victories against the Magyars and the Danes. \u00a0These newly secured borders ushered in a period of immense prosperity and artistic productivity for the Saxon empire.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1815\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"522\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1815\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image278.jpeg\" alt=\"Detail, Otto I presenting the Cathedral of Magdeburg, 962\u2013968, Ottonian, from the Cathedral of Magdeburg, probably made in Milan, northern Italy (The Metropolitan Museum of Art). On this ivory, Otto presents a symbolic model of the church to Christ for his blessing. As a humble servant, Otto is depicted smaller than the company of patron saints.\" width=\"522\" height=\"450\" \/> Detail,\u00a0<em>Otto I presenting the Cathedral of Magdeburg<\/em>, 962\u2013968, Ottonian, from the Cathedral of Magdeburg, probably made in Milan, northern Italy (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/toah\/works-of-art\/41.100.157\">The Metropolitan Museum of Art<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>). On this ivory, Otto presents a symbolic model of the church to Christ for his blessing. As a humble servant, Otto is depicted smaller than the company of patron saints.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nHenry\u2019s son Otto I (who became emperor in 962) lends his name to the \u201cOttonian\u201d period. He forged an important alliance with the Pope, which allowed him to be crowned the first official Holy Roman Emperor since 924. This contact with Rome was extremely important to Ottonian artistic development, since each Ottonian king was determined to define himself as a Roman Emperor in the style of Constantine and Charlemagne. This meant perpetuating a highly intellectual court and creating an extensive artistic legacy.\r\n\r\nOttonian art takes a number of traditional medieval forms, including elegantly illuminated manuscripts, lavish metalwork, intricate carving, and Romanesque churches and cathedrals. Perhaps the most famous of the Ottonian artistic innovations is the Saxon Romanesque architecture style, which is marked by a careful attention to balance and mathematical harmony. \u00a0This focus on geometry is based on the texts de Arithmatica and Ars Geometriae by the 6th century philosopher Boethius. The Ottonians held mathematical sciences in high regard and this is reflected in many of their artistic productions.\r\n\r\nThe illuminated manuscripts produced by Ottonian \u201cscriptoria,\u201d or monastery painting and writing schools, provide documentation of both Ottonian religious and political customs and the stylistic preferences of the period. \u00a0Manuscripts were most often produced of religious texts, and usually included a dedication portrait commemorating the book\u2019s creation. \u00a0The royal or religious donor is usually shown presenting the book to the saint of his or her choice.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1816\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"544\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1816\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image279.jpeg\" alt=\"Illuminated manuscript page featuring a central circular illustration of a crowned figure holding a child, surrounded by Latin text and intricate gold, blue, and red decorative borders. Additional smaller circular portraits and detailed scenes of figures and animals frame the main image, showcasing medieval religious iconography and artistic style.\" width=\"544\" height=\"450\" \/> Uta Codex (Uta Presents the Codex to Mary), c. 1020, Munich, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.bsb-muenchen.de\/en\/collections\/manuscripts\/about-the-collection\/\">Bayerische Staatsbibliothek<\/a>, Clm. 13601, f. 2, recto (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.wdl.org\/en\/item\/13479\/\">digitized<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nHere we see a powerful abbess, Uta, presenting her codex to St. Mary. \u00a0Many manuscripts also included a page depicting the artist or scribe of the work, acknowledging that the production of a book required not only money but also artistic labor.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1817\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"375\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1817\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image280.png\" alt=\"Medieval illuminated manuscript illustration depicting a seated haloed figure receiving a gift from a standing figure dressed in dark robes. The scene is framed by architectural elements with patterned floor tiles and draped curtains, highlighting a religious or ceremonial context.\" width=\"375\" height=\"450\" \/> Hillinus Codex (Hillinus Presents the Codex to St. Peter), c.1020, Cologne Dombibliothek, folio 16, verso, manuscript 12 (digitized)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn the Hillinus Codex, a monk presents the codex that he has written or painted (or both!) to St. Peter. \u00a0The work of the artist and scribe were often one and the same, as can be seen in many of the fantastic decorated initials that begin books or chapters in Ottonian Manuscripts. \u00a0As you can see from the dedication pictures, the manuscripts in question are often depicted as they were frequently displayed, that is with the text securely enclosed between lavish metal covers.\r\n\r\nOttonian metalwork took many forms, but one of the most common productions was bejeweled book covers for their precious manuscripts.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/wasserzeichen-projekte-6-scaled.jpg\">This cover<\/a>\u00a0is one of the most expensive that survives; it includes not only numerous jewels, but an ivory carving of the death of the Virgin Mary.\r\n\r\nOn a larger scale, clerics like Bernward of Hildesheim\u00a0cast his 15-foot\u00a0doors depicting the fall and redemption of mankind out of single pieces of bronze. This was an enormous undertaking, and the process was so complex that it would not be replicated until the Renaissance.\r\n\r\nFor a modern viewer, Ottonian art can be a little difficult to understand. \u00a0The depictions of people and places don\u2019t conform to a naturalistic style, and the symbolism is often obscure. \u00a0When you look at Ottonian art, keep in mind that the aim for these artists was not to create something that looked \u201crealistic,\u201d but rather to convey abstract concepts, many of which are deeply philosophical in nature. \u00a0The focus on symbolism can also be one of the most fascinating aspects of studying Ottonian art, since you can depend on each part of the compositions to mean something specific. \u00a0The more time you spend on each composition, the more rewarding discoveries emerge.\r\n<h2 id=\"ottonian-art-gospel-book-of-otto-iii\">Ottonian Art: Gospel Book of Otto III<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1818\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1429\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/wasserzeichen-projekte-resize.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1818\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image281.jpeg\" alt=\"A medieval illuminated manuscript painting depicting a royal court scene with a seated king holding a scepter and orb on the right page, surrounded by attendants. The left page shows a procession of crowned figures carrying offerings, rendered in vibrant colors with detailed clothing and architectural elements.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"972\" \/><\/a> Double page opening: Provinces Bringing Tribute (f.23v.) and Ruler Portrait of Otto III (f.24),\u00a0<em>Gospels of Otto III,<\/em> c. 1000, ink, gold, paint, parchment, each page 33.4 x 24.2 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/daten.digitale-sammlungen.de\/0009\/bsb00096593\/images\/index.html?id=00096593&amp;seite=21&amp;fip=193.174.98.30&amp;nativeno=&amp;groesser=100%25\">Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich, Clm.4453<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe double page opening of the ruler portrait of Otto III and the accompanying image of provinces bringing tribute is taken from the\u00a0<em>Gospels of Otto III<\/em>, one of the most magnificent\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/medieval-manuscripts\/\">manuscripts<\/a>\u00a0to have come down to us from the\u00a0early medieval period. It is thought to have been made about the year 1000 at the Benedictine monastery of Reichenau on Lake Constance where Austria, Switzerland, and Germany converge and belongs to a group of stylistically related manuscripts from the monastery known as the Liuthar group. The monk Liuthar is represented in another gospel-book made for Otto III that is now in the cathedral treasury at Aachen (Aachen, Domschatzkammer, G25). Liuthar is now thought to have been a scribe rather than an artist but the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-work-of-the-scribe\/\">scribe<\/a>\u00a0was usually the main co-ordinating figure for a manuscript project.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1819\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"749\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/wasserzeichen-projekte-1.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1819\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image282.jpeg\" alt=\"A medieval illuminated manuscript illustration depicting a central figure with outstretched arms beneath a circular arrangement of angelic beings and a winged bull symbol, set against a gold background. The scene is framed by ornate red columns with bird motifs, and two green animals graze at the figure's feet, highlighting religious and symbolic themes.\" width=\"749\" height=\"958\" \/><\/a> Luke the Evangelist,\u00a0<em>Gospels of Otto III<\/em>, c. 1000, ink, gold, paint, parchment, 33.4 x 24.2 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/daten.digitale-sammlungen.de\/0009\/bsb00096593\/images\/index.html?fip=193.174.98.30&amp;seite=58&amp;pdfseitex=\">Bayerische Stattsbibliothek, Munich, Clm.4453<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe pages of the\u00a0<em>Gospels of Otto III<\/em>\u00a0manuscript measure 334 by 242 millimeters and are made of parchment. The script is written in ink, with gold initials, and the manuscript is extensively illustrated with portraits of the four evangelists (the authors of the four gospels), and scenes from the life of Christ as well as the ruler portrait. The front cover is decorated with precious jewels and inset with a Byzantine ivory representing the dormition or death of the Virgin Mary. The double page is near the beginning of the manuscript before the gospel texts.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1820\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/wasserzeichen-projekte-6-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1820\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image283.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate medieval book cover featuring a central carved ivory panel depicting a religious scene surrounded by a gold background adorned with numerous colorful gemstones and pearls. The cover's intricate design highlights craftsmanship with a symmetrical arrangement of jewels in various shapes and sizes, emphasizing its historical and artistic significance.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1189\" \/><\/a> Front cover,\u00a0<em>Gospels of Otto III,<\/em> c. 1000, each page 33.4 x 24.2 cm, ink, gold, paint, parchment (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.bsb-muenchen.de\/en\/collections\/manuscripts\/about-the-collection\/\">Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWe do not know the name of the artist (as is the case for most of the painters from this period), but he most likely belonged to a team of craftsmen working on the manuscript. In devising the double opening, he appears not to have worked from his imagination but to have followed an earlier source such as the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/Cwg0ereXgAAVaNZ.jpeg\">ruler portrait of Charles the Bald<\/a>\u00a0in the ninth-century manuscript known as the\u00a0<em>Codex Aureus of Saint Emmeram<\/em>\u00a0(Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm.14000, f. 5 v.).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1821\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/ruler-portrait-otto.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1821\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image284.jpeg\" alt=\"Medieval-style painting depicting a crowned king seated on a throne, holding a scepter and an orb with a cross, surrounded by attendants in robes. The scene features rich colors like green, red, and gold, with architectural elements such as columns and a canopy, highlighting royal authority and religious symbolism.\" width=\"870\" height=\"977\" \/><\/a> Ruler portrait of Otto III (f.24),\u00a0<em>Gospels of Otto III,<\/em> c. 1000, ink, gold, paint, parchment, each page 33.4 x 24.2 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/daten.digitale-sammlungen.de\/0009\/bsb00096593\/images\/index.html?id=00096593&amp;seite=21&amp;fip=193.174.98.30&amp;nativeno=&amp;groesser=100%25\">Bayerische Stattsbibliothek, Munich, Clm.4453<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOn the right side of the double page, emperor Otto III is shown seated frontally, crowned, and holding a golden orb and a sceptre surmounted by an eagle. Otto III was the Holy Roman Emperor and nominally ruled over territories corresponding to modern-day Germany, France, and northern Italy. The title Holy Roman Emperor dates back to\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/charlemagne-part-1-of-2\/\">Charlemagne<\/a>\u00a0and like this earlier emperor,\u00a0Otto III\u00a0was crowned by the Pope in Rome\u00a0where Otto III spent most of his reign.\u00a0Otto III was Holy Roman Emperor from 996 to 1002, when he died at the age of 21.\r\n\r\nOtto III looks out at us with hypnotic eyes, and is dressed in green and the imperial purple. He was the son of Otto II, who died when Otto III was three, and a Byzantine Princess called Theophanu, and we know that he was an educated man.\r\n\r\nHe is flanked on either side by members of his court: on the right by those who fight (two members of the nobility who carry a sword, a lance, and shield) and, on the left, by those who pray (two members of the clergy who hold books).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1822\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/wasserzeichen-projekte-4.jpeg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1822\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image285.jpeg\" alt=\"Medieval-style illustration depicting four crowned female figures labeled Sicilia, Calabria, Apulia, and Roma, each holding symbolic objects such as a drum, a scroll, a palm branch, and a bowl. The figures wear long, flowing robes in muted colors with detailed borders, standing barefoot on green ground against a pink and gray background.\" width=\"870\" height=\"977\" \/><\/a> Provinces Bringing Tribute (f.23v.),\u00a0<em>Gospels of Otto III,<\/em> c. 1000, ink, gold, paint, parchment, 33.4 x 24.2 cm\u00a0(<a href=\"https:\/\/daten.digitale-sammlungen.de\/0009\/bsb00096593\/images\/index.html?id=00096593&amp;seite=21&amp;fip=193.174.98.30&amp;nativeno=&amp;groesser=100%25\">Bayerische Stattsbibliothek, Munich, Clm.4453<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe pendant image depicts four personifications of the territories over which Otto ruled and who are shown bringing him tribute. They are identified as: Sclavinia (Slavic east), Germania (roughly Germany), Gallia (roughly France), and Roma (Rome). The device of the personification (whereby an abstract idea is represented by a human figure, usually a female one) goes back to\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/classic-classical-and-classicism-explained\/\">classical art<\/a>. There is a parallel between this scene and that of the adoration of the three magi (represented as crowned kings, a tenth-century innovation) bringing gifts to the infant Christ (<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/magi-otto.jpg\">represented on f.29 of the manuscript<\/a>), which underlines the quasi-divine nature of the Emperor.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1823\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/otto-portrait-withborder.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1823\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image286.jpeg\" alt=\"Detail of a medieval-style illustration depicting a central figure wearing a crown and holding a scepter and orb, flanked by six attendants or nobles. The artwork features detailed robes, a green draped backdrop with white patterns, and architectural elements like columns with ornate capitals.\" width=\"870\" height=\"532\" \/><\/a> Ruler portrait of Otto III (f.24),<em> Gospels of Otto III,<\/em> c. 1000, ink, gold, paint, parchment, 33.4 x 24.2 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/daten.digitale-sammlungen.de\/0009\/bsb00096593\/images\/index.html?id=00096593&amp;seite=21&amp;fip=193.174.98.30&amp;nativeno=&amp;groesser=100%25\">Bayerische Stattsbibliothek, Munich, Clm.4453<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThis is not a portrait in the conventional sense of a likeness and gives us very little idea of what Otto III must have looked like. Otto III is represented out of proportion\u00a0with the much smaller\u00a0figures that flank him\u2014indicating his status. The opening pages probably represent an ideal of Otto III\u2019s rule rather than\u00a0the reality of his situation as his rule was fraught with division.\u00a0The style of the opening looks back to late antique illusionism (note, for example, the lozenge-shaped ornament in the borders, and the atmospheric backgrounds which recall, for example, such manuscripts as the\u00a0<em>Vatican Vergil<\/em>\u00a0made in about 400) but has an extraordinary flatness to it as if the scene has been pressed between two panes of glass.\r\n\r\nAfter Otto\u2019s death, the manuscript passed to his cousin and heir, Henry II, who gave it to the cathedral of Bamberg which he founded, where it remained until 1803, when during the secularization of the church, it was transferred to the Bavarian State Library. The manuscript is rarely exhibited, but a facsimile of it has been made.\r\n\r\nThis style is known as\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ottonian-art-an-introduction\/\">Ottonian<\/a>, a period style concept that covers both the reigns of the three emperors bearing the name Otto and of their immediate successors\u00a0through the late eleventh century. It both precedes and anticipates the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-art\/\">Romanesque<\/a>\u00a0style.\r\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-11\">Conclusion<\/h2>\r\nSummarizing art in the Middle Ages is challenging: the timeline can be confusing, stylistic features overlap across different cultures, and it is less cohesive in comparison to the art and architecture of the Roman Empire. It was a time of migration and cultural interchange. It was also a time of rich artistic production, particularly in personal objects of adornment and illuminated manuscripts. From the Carolingian Renaissance under Charlemagne, there began a revival of interest in Classical ideas. After Carolingian art, Ottonian art transitioned into the period called Romanesque around 1000 C.E. The Romanesque (meaning Roman-like) returned Western Europe to the architectural ideas grounded in the Ancient Roman world. Although the Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476 C.E., the Eastern Roman Empire continued to flourish during Europe\u2019s \u201cdark ages.\u201d The Eastern Roman Empire came to be known as the Byzantine Empire.\r\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-11\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\r\nThe following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and are licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Understanding Timelines in the Middle Ages<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Conclusion<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Nancy Ross, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-the-middle-ages\/\">The Middle Ages, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-sutton-hoo-ship-burial\/\">Sutton Hoo Ship Burial<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, March 3, 2017.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Kathleen Doyle, The British Library and Louisa Woodville, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lindisfarne-gospels\/\">The Lindisfarne Gospels<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Andrea C. Snow, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/viking-art\/\">Art of the Viking Age<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, October 1, 2020.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/charlemagne-part-2-of-2\/\">Charlemagne (part 2 of 2): The Carolingian revival<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, July 4, 2018.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Nancy Ross, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/carolingian-art-an-introduction\/\">Carolingian art, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, July 6, 2018.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Jennifer Awes Freeman, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/palatine-chapel-aachen\/\">Palatine Chapel, Aachen<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, June 11, 2023.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Victoria Valdes, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ottonian-art-an-introduction\/\">Ottonian art, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 25, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Andreas Petzold, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gospel-book-of-otto-iii\/\"><em>Gospel Book of Otto III<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-11\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\n<p>After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 C.E., Western Europe entered the Middle Ages. The Early Medieval period covers the beginning of the Middle Ages (c. 500) to the Ottonian style (c. 1000). Medieval art spans a wide geographic area and many variations in style. In this chapter, focus is paid to a few areas of cultural production: Anglo-Saxon England with the interlacing animal style and illuminated manuscripts, Scandinavia with Viking-era art, and the Holy Roman Empire under Carolingian and then Ottonian rule. The Early Medieval period of Western Europe has a complicated history that produced intricately detailed artworks, including objects of personal adornment, illuminated manuscripts, wood carvings, and architecture.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-11\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Sutton Hoo purse cover<\/em>, from East Anglia, England, c. 630, gold with garnets and cloisonn\u00e9 originally on ivory or bone (since lost)<\/li>\n<li>Eadfrith, <em>Lindisfarne Gospels<\/em>, c. 700, Northumbria, tempera on vellum<\/li>\n<li>Animal head post found in burial mound near T\u00f8nsberg (Oseberg ship burial), 9th century, Oseberg style, wood\u00a0and paint<\/li>\n<li>Odo of Metz,\u00a0<em>Interior of Charlemagne\u2019s palace chapel<\/em>, Aachen, 792-805<\/li>\n<li><em>Gospels of Otto III<\/em>, c. 1000, ink, gold, paint, parchment<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"term-list-11\">Term List<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Middle Ages<\/li>\n<li>&#8220;Dark Ages&#8221;<\/li>\n<li>Byzantine Empire<\/li>\n<li>Anglo-Saxon England<\/li>\n<li>Interlacing animal style<\/li>\n<li>Millefiori<\/li>\n<li>Cloisonn\u00e9<\/li>\n<li>Granulation<\/li>\n<li>Sutton Hoo<\/li>\n<li>Codex<\/li>\n<li>Insular\/Hiberno-Saxon art<\/li>\n<li>Illuminated Manuscript<\/li>\n<li>Colophon<\/li>\n<li>Viking<\/li>\n<li>Norseman<\/li>\n<li>Ribbon-animal<\/li>\n<li>Gripping beast<\/li>\n<li>Runestones<\/li>\n<li>Great Beast motif<\/li>\n<li>Charlemagne<\/li>\n<li>Holy Roman Emperor<\/li>\n<li>Carolingian Renaissance<\/li>\n<li>Scriptorium<\/li>\n<li><em>Agnus dei<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Octagonal centralized plan<\/li>\n<li>Longitudinal plan<\/li>\n<li>Ottonian<\/li>\n<li>Scribe<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"the-middle-ages-an-introduction\">The Middle Ages, an introduction<\/h2>\n<h3 id=\"the-dark-ages\">The dark ages?<\/h3>\n<p>So much of what the average person knows, or thinks they know, about the Middle Ages comes from film and tv. Often people call to mind Monty Python and the Holy Grail, Blackadder, The Sword in the Stone, lusty wenches, feasting, courtly love, the plague, jousting and chain mail.<\/p>\n<p>Perhaps someone who had seen (or better yet read)\u00a0<em>The Name of the Rose<\/em>\u00a0or\u00a0<em>Pillars of the Earth<\/em>\u00a0would add cathedrals, manuscripts, monasteries, feudalism, monks and friars.<\/p>\n<p>Petrarch, an Italian poet and scholar of the fourteenth century, famously referred to the period of time between the fall of the Roman Empire (c. 476) and his own day (c. 1330s) as the Dark Ages. Petrarch believed that the Dark Ages was a period of intellectual darkness due to the loss of the classical learning, which he saw as light. Later historians picked up on this idea and ultimately the term Dark Ages was transformed into Middle Ages. Broadly speaking, the Middle Ages is the period of time in Europe between the end of antiquity in the fifth century and the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/primer-italian-renaissance-art\/\">Renaissance<\/a>, or rebirth of classical learning, in the fifteenth century and sixteenth centuries.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"not-so-dark-after-all\">Not so dark after all<\/h3>\n<p>Characterizing the Middle Ages as a period of darkness falling between two greater, more intellectually significant periods in history is misleading. The Middle Ages was not a time of ignorance and backwardness, but rather a period during which\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christianity-an-introduction\/\">Christianity<\/a>\u00a0flourished in Europe. Christianity, and specifically Catholicism in the Latin West, brought with it new views of life and the world that rejected the traditions and learning of the ancient world.<\/p>\n<p>During this time, the Roman Empire slowly fragmented into many smaller political entities. The geographical boundaries for European countries today were established during the Middle Ages. This was a period that heralded the formation and rise of universities, the establishment of the rule of law, numerous periods of ecclesiastical reform and the birth of the tourism industry. Many works of medieval literature, such as the Canterbury Tales, the Divine Comedy, and The Song of Roland, are widely read and studied today.<\/p>\n<p>The visual arts prospered during Middles Ages, which created its own aesthetic values. The wealthiest and most influential members of society commissioned cathedrals, churches, sculpture, painting, textiles, manuscripts, jewelry and ritual items from artists. Many of these commissions were religious in nature but medieval artists also produced secular art. Few names of artists survive and fewer documents record their business dealings, but they left behind an impressive legacy of art and culture.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1783\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1783\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/03\/5819442989_0265f89503_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1783\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image246.jpeg\" alt=\"Stained glass window featuring a large circular rose design above five tall, narrow panels depicting religious figures in vibrant reds, blues, and greens. The intricate patterns and detailed imagery highlight traditional Gothic cathedral artistry and religious storytelling.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1223\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image246.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image246-213x300.jpeg 213w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image246-728x1024.jpeg 728w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image246-768x1080.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image246-65x91.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image246-225x316.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image246-350x492.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1783\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">North Transept Rose Window, c. 1235,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/cathedral-of-notre-dame-de-chartres-part-1-of-3\/\">Chartres Cathedral<\/a>, France (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/9SfaDX\">Dr. Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"byzantium\">Byzantium<\/h3>\n<p>In the medieval West, the Roman Empire fragmented, but in the Byzantine East, it remained a strong, centrally-focused political entity. Byzantine emperors ruled from Constantinople, which they thought of as the New Rome. Constantinople housed\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/hagia-sophia-istanbul\/\">Hagia Sophia<\/a>, one of the world\u2019s largest churches, and was a major center of artistic production.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1784\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1784\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/HagiaSophia-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1784\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image247.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul at sunset, showcasing its large central dome and four tall minarets. Surrounding buildings and trees are visible in foreground, with soft evening sky providing a calm backdrop.\" width=\"870\" height=\"560\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image247.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image247-300x193.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image247-768x494.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image247-65x42.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image247-225x145.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image247-350x225.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1784\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Isidore of Miletus &amp; Anthemius of Tralles for Emperor Justinian, Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, 532\u201337 (photo:<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/nraZY8\">\u00a0Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The Byzantine Empire experienced two periods of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/byzantine-iconoclasm\/\">Iconoclasm<\/a>\u00a0(720s\u2013787 and 815\u2013843), when images and image-making were problematic. Iconoclasm left a visible legacy on\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-byzantine-art\/\">Byzantine art<\/a>\u00a0because it created limits on what artists could represent and how those subjects could be represented. Byzantine Art is broken into three periods. Early Byzantine or Early Christian art begins with the earliest extant Christian works of art c. 250 and ends with the end of Iconoclasm in 843. Middle Byzantine art picks up at the end of Iconoclasm and extends to the sack of Constantinople by Latin Crusaders in 1204. Late Byzantine art was made between the sack of Constantinople and the fall of Constantinople to the\u00a0Ottoman Turks\u00a0in 1453.<\/p>\n<p>In the European West, Medieval art is often broken into smaller periods. These date ranges vary by location.<\/p>\n<table>\n<colgroup>\n<col style=\"width: 50%\" \/>\n<col style=\"width: 50%\" \/> <\/colgroup>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Early Medieval Art<\/th>\n<th>c. 500\u2013800<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/carolingian-art-an-introduction\/\">Carolingian Art<\/a><\/td>\n<td>c. 780\u2013900<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ottonian-art-an-introduction\/\">Ottonian Art<\/a><\/td>\n<td>c. 900\u20131000<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-art\/\">Romanesque Art<\/a><\/td>\n<td>c. 1000\u20131200<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gothic-architecture-an-introduction\/\">Gothic Art<\/a><\/td>\n<td>c. 1200\u20131400<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h2 id=\"early-medieval-art-in-anglo-saxon-england-sutton-hoo-ship-burial-and-the-purse-cover\">Early Medieval Art in Anglo-Saxon England: Sutton Hoo Ship Burial and the Purse Cover<\/h2>\n<p>1400 years ago, people from early medieval England hauled a ship up a hilltop and buried their king and his treasure within.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Sutton Hoo, an Anglo-Saxon treasure collected across Europe and Asia\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/jbn9_IKA3ow?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>The Purse Cover from the Sutton Hoo Ship Burial is an excellent example of the Hiberno-Saxon style (also called the interlacing animal style) made in Anglo-Saxon England in the early medieval period. The Hiberno-Saxon style consisted of interlacing <strong>lines<\/strong>, zoomorphic <strong>forms<\/strong>, and abstract <strong>patterns<\/strong>. Around the perimeter of the purse cover are <strong>rectilinear lines<\/strong> of gold that create a rhythmic <strong>pattern<\/strong> separating semi-precious red and purple <strong>color<\/strong> glass and stones. The subject matter and the techniques of millefiori and cloisonn\u00e9 used to create the cover are discussed in the video above. The internal designs are set into a white <strong>background<\/strong>. Here the idea of <strong>pictorial space<\/strong> consists of flatness, which contrasts to Roman ideas of illusionistic pictorial space. The artists have chosen to show some <strong>overlap<\/strong> of interlacing <strong>lines<\/strong> to create shallow <strong>depth<\/strong>. On the top section in the center are <strong>abstracted<\/strong> zoomorphic (animal) creatures that have interweaving <strong>lines<\/strong> protruding from their snouts. On either side of the upper zoomorphic forms, are hexagon <strong>shapes<\/strong>. Within each hexagon <strong>shape<\/strong> are interlacing <strong>lines<\/strong> set within more geometric shaped structures (Ex. golden rectangle in the centers of the hexagons). On the bottom are more zoomorphic <strong>forms<\/strong> and two human figures. Using <strong>symmetry<\/strong>, each bottom side features a human <strong>figurative form<\/strong> in frontal view flanked by two animals in <strong>profile view<\/strong>. In the bottom center are birds of prey with smaller birds latched in their talons. The birds face each other to create a <strong>symmetrical<\/strong> design facing inward toward the center of the <strong>composition<\/strong>. The composition presented in the Purse Cover from the Sutton Hoo Ship Burial is complicated, heavily detailed, and features an <strong>iconographic<\/strong> program art historians and archaeologists are still working to discern.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"early-medieval-art-in-anglo-saxon-england-the-lindisfarne-gospels\">Early Medieval Art in Anglo-Saxon England: The Lindisfarne Gospels<\/h2>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"The Lindisfarne Gospels\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/TYds0dsratI?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>A medieval monk takes up a quill pen, fashioned from a goose feather, and dips it into a rich, black ink made from soot. Seated on a wooden chair in the scriptorium of Lindisfarne, an island off the coast of Northumberland in England, he stares hard at the words from a manuscript made in Italy. This book is his exemplar, the codex (a bound book, made from sheets of paper or parchment) from which he is to copy the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.<\/p>\n<p>For about the next six years, he will copy this Latin. He will illuminate the gospel text with a weave of fantastic images\u2014 snakes that twist themselves into knots or birds, their curvaceous and overlapping forms creating the illusion of a third dimension into which a viewer can lose him or herself in meditative contemplation.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1785\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1785\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/crosscarpet-side.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1785\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image248.jpeg\" alt=\"Illuminated manuscript page featuring an intricate geometric and interlaced design with vibrant colors including red, blue, green, and gold. The artwork showcases symmetrical patterns, stylized animal motifs, and detailed border decorations typical of medieval religious texts.\" width=\"870\" height=\"624\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image248.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image248-300x215.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image248-768x551.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image248-65x47.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image248-225x161.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image248-350x251.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1785\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Lindisfarne Gospels, John\u2019s cross-carpet page, folio 210v. (British Library, <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lindisfarne-gospels\/\">Smarthistory<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The book is a spectacular example of Insular or Hiberno-Saxon art\u2014works produced in the British Isles between 500\u2013900 C.E., a time of devastating invasions and political upheavals. Monks read from it during rituals at their Lindisfarne Priory on Holy Island, a Christian community that safeguarded the shrine of St Cuthbert, a bishop who died in 687 and whose relics were thought to have curative and miracle-working powers.<\/p>\n<p>A Northumbrian monk, very likely the bishop Eadfrith, illuminated the codex in the early 8th century. Two-hundred and fifty-nine written and recorded leaves include full-page portraits of each evangelist; highly ornamental \u201ccross-carpet\u201d pages, each of which features a large cross set against a background of ordered and yet teeming ornamentation; and the Gospels themselves, each introduced by an historiated initial. The codex also includes sixteen pages of canon tables set in arcades. Here correlating passages from each evangelist are set side-by-side, enabling a reader to compare narrations.<\/p>\n<p>In 635 C.E. Christian monks from the Scottish island of Iona built a priory in Lindisfarne. More than a hundred and fifty years later, in 793, Vikings from the north attacked and pillaged the monastery, but survivors managed to transport the Gospels safely to Durham, a town on the Northumbrian coast about 75 miles west of its original location.<\/p>\n<p>We glean this information from the manuscript itself, thanks to Aldred, a 10th-century priest from a priory at Durham. Aldred\u2019s colophon\u2014an inscription that relays information about the book\u2019s production\u2014informs us that Eadfrith, a bishop of Lindisfarne in 698 who died in 721, created the manuscript to honor God and St. Cuthbert. Aldred also inscribed a vernacular translation between the lines of the Latin text, creating the earliest known Gospels written in a form of English.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1786\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1786\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Lindisdarne-cross-combined.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1786\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image249.jpeg\" alt=\"Illuminated manuscript page featuring intricate Celtic knotwork and interlacing patterns in red, blue, green, and beige tones, divided into four quadrants with circular motifs and symmetrical designs. Two close-up insets highlight detailed knotwork in the upper left and lower right quadrants, emphasizing complex loops and stylized animal forms typical of medieval Insular art.\" width=\"870\" height=\"711\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image249.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image249-300x245.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image249-768x628.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image249-65x53.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image249-225x184.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image249-350x286.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1786\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Lindisfarne Gospels, St Matthew, Cross-Carpet page, f.26v (British Library, <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lindisfarne-gospels\/\">Smarthistory<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Matthew\u2019s cross-carpet page exemplifies Eadfrith\u2019s exuberance and genius. A mesmerizing series of repetitive knots and spirals is dominated by a centrally located cross. One can imagine devout monks losing themselves in the swirls and eddies of color during meditative contemplation of its patterns.<\/p>\n<p>Compositionally, Eadfrith stacked wine-glass shapes horizontally and vertically against his intricate weave of knots. On closer inspection many of these knots reveal themselves as snake-like creatures curling in and around tubular forms, mouths clamping down on their bodies. Chameleon-like, their bodies change colors: sapphire blue here, verdigris green there, and sandy gold in between. The sanctity of the cross, outlined in red with arms outstretched and pressing against the page edges, stabilizes the background\u2019s gyrating activity and turns the repetitive energy into a meditative force.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1787\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1787\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Lindisdarne-u-combined.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1787\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image250.jpeg\" alt=\"Illuminated manuscript page featuring intricate medieval calligraphy and decorative initials in red, blue, and gold tones. Close-up highlights detailed interlacing patterns and stylized letterforms typical of early medieval religious texts.\" width=\"870\" height=\"690\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image250.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image250-300x238.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image250-768x609.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image250-65x52.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image250-225x178.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image250-350x278.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1787\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Lindisfarne Gospels, St Luke, incipit page, f.139 (British Library, <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lindisfarne-gospels\/\">Smarthistory<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Likewise, Luke\u2019s incipit (incipit: it begins) page teems with animal life, spiraled forms, and swirling vortexes. In many cases Eadfrith\u2019s characteristic knots reveal themselves as snakes that move stealthily along the confines of a letter\u2019s boundaries.<\/p>\n<p>Blue pin-wheeled shapes rotate in repetitive circles, caught in the vortex of a large Q that forms Luke\u2019s opening sentence\u2014Quoniam quidem multi conati sunt ordinare narrationem. (Translation: As many have taken it in hand to set forth in order.)<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1788\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1788\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Lindisdarne-qswirls_cat.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1788\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image251.jpeg\" alt=\"Illuminated manuscript page featuring ornate, colorful initial letters with intricate Celtic knotwork and zoomorphic designs in red, blue, green, and gold hues. Close-up insets highlight detailed spiral patterns and stylized animal figures integrated into letterforms, showcasing medieval manuscript artistry and decoration techniques.\" width=\"870\" height=\"690\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image251.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image251-300x238.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image251-768x609.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image251-65x52.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image251-225x178.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image251-350x278.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1788\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Lindisfarne Gospels, St Luke, incipit page, f.139 (British Library, <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lindisfarne-gospels\/\">Smarthistory<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Birds also abound. One knot enclosed in a tall rectangle on the far right unravels into a blue heron\u2019s chest shaped like a large comma. Eadfrith repeats this shape vertically down the column, cleverly twisting the comma into a cat\u2019s forepaw at the bottom. The feline, who has just consumed the eight birds that stretch vertically up from its head, presses off this appendage acrobatically to turn its body 90 degrees; it ends up staring at the words RENARRATIONEM (part of the phrase -re narrationem).<\/p>\n<p>Eadfrith also has added a host of tiny red dots that envelop words, except when they don\u2019t\u2014the letters \u201cNIAM\u201d of \u201cquoniam\u201d are composed of the vellum itself, the negative space now asserting itself as four letters.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1789\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1789\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/Lindinfarne-apostle.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1789\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image252.jpeg\" alt=\"Illuminated manuscript page depicting Saint Luke seated on a chair, writing on a scroll with a winged ox above him, symbolizing his gospel. The artwork features a decorative red border with intricate knot designs in corners and Latin text identifying Saint Luke.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1185\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image252.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image252-220x300.jpeg 220w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image252-752x1024.jpeg 752w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image252-768x1046.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image252-65x89.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image252-225x306.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image252-350x477.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1789\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Lindisfarne Gospels, St. Luke, portrait page (137v) (British Library, <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lindisfarne-gospels\/\">Smarthistory<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Luke\u2019s incipit page is in marked contrast to his straightforward portrait page. Here Eadfrith seats the curly-haired, bearded evangelist on a red-cushioned stool against an unornamented background. Luke holds a quill in his right hand, poised to write words on a scroll unfurling from his lap. His feet hover above a tray supported by red legs. He wears a purple robe streaked with red, one that we can easily imagine on a late fourth or fifth century Roman philosopher.\u00a0The gold halo behind Luke\u2019s head indicates his divinity. Above his halo flies a blue-winged calf, its two eyes turned toward the viewer with its body in profile. The bovine clasps a green parallelogram between two forelegs, a reference to the Gospel.<\/p>\n<p>According to the historian Bede from the nearby monastery in Monkwearmouth (d. 735), this calf, or ox, symbolizes Christ\u2019s sacrifice on the cross. Bede assigns symbols for the other three evangelists as well, which Eadfrith duly includes in their respective portraits: Matthew\u2019s is a man, suggesting the human aspect of Christ; Mark\u2019s the lion, symbolizing the triumphant and divine Christ of the Resurrection; and John\u2019s the eagle, referring to Christ\u2019s second coming.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1790\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1790\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/crosscarpet-bird-copy.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1790\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image253.jpeg\" alt=\"Illuminated manuscript page featuring an intricate geometric and interlaced design with symmetrical patterns in red, blue, green, and gold hues. The artwork includes detailed knotwork, stylized animal motifs, and ornamental borders, characteristic of medieval Celtic or Insular art styles.\" width=\"870\" height=\"676\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image253.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image253-300x233.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image253-768x597.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image253-65x51.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image253-225x175.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image253-350x272.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1790\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Lindisfarne Gospels, John\u2019s cross-carpet page, folio 210v. (British Library, <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lindisfarne-gospels\/\">Smarthistory<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>A dense interplay of stacked birds teem underneath the crosses of the carpet page that opens John\u2019s Gospel. One bird, situated in the upper left-hand quadrant, has blue-and-pink stripes in contrast to others that sport registers of feathers. Stripes had a negative association to the medieval mind, appearing chaotic and disordered. The insane wore stripes, as did prostitutes, criminals, jugglers, sorcerers, and hangmen. Might Eadfrith be warning his viewers that evil lurks hidden in the most unlikely of places? Or was Eadfrith himself practicing humility in avoiding perfection?<\/p>\n<p>All in all, the variety and splendor of the Lindisfarne Gospels are such that even in reproduction, its images astound. Artistic expression and inspired execution make this codex a high point of early medieval art.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"early-medieval-art-the-viking-age\">Early Medieval Art: the Viking Age<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1791\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1791\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/oseberg-post-2-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1791\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image254.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an intricately carved wooden object shaped like a serpent or dragon head with an open mouth. The upper part features detailed openwork designs with intertwined patterns and figures, while the lower part is smooth and uncarved, resting on a wooden surface against a plain background.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1181\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image254.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image254-221x300.jpeg 221w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image254-754x1024.jpeg 754w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image254-768x1043.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image254-65x88.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image254-225x305.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image254-350x475.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1791\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Animal head post found in burial mound near T\u00f8nsberg (Oseberg ship burial), 9th century, Oseberg style, wood\u00a0and paint (no longer existing)\u00a0(The Museum of Cultural History in Oslo; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Cf34567_443_C55000_123_Dyrehodestolpe_Oseberg_Barokkhodet_profil._Kulturhistorisk_museum,_UiO,_Oslo,_Norway_(Kirsten_Helgeland_CC_BY-SA_4.0)_cropped.jpg\">Kirsten Helgeland<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Modern representations of the Vikings\u00a0can be fun, but are often limited to sensationalized depictions of violent, raiding warriors. In reality,\u00a0Vikings were a small group of a larger community of people called the Norse (or Norsemen).\u00a0Few of these Norsemen raided, and many more\u00a0were merchants, farmers, and craftsmen. Political and mercenary work were among their enterprises, but exploration, colonization, and mercantilism also fueled their expeditions.<\/p>\n<p>What initiated the Viking Age? Scholars typically identify the Viking raid of the wealthy monastery on the island of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lindisfarne-gospels\/\">Lindisfarne<\/a>\u00a0in 793 (off the coast of England) as its starting point.\u00a0 During the Viking Age, which lasted from the late 8th century through the 11th century,\u00a0people from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden employed their maritime skills to journey around the globe. In addition to western Europe, they traveled to\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/medieval-europe-byzantium\/byzantine-2\/\">Byzantium<\/a>, West Asia, China, Russia, Eastern Europe, Northern Africa, Greenland, and even North America. Interacting with many cultures and settling in many geographic regions, the\u00a0Norse\u00a0were more cosmopolitan than they receive credit for.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-norse-visual-world\">The Norse visual world<\/h3>\n<p>The visual world was of great importance to the Norse. Significant resources were devoted to the creation of astonishing objects and the acquisition of foreign goods (through plunder and trade alike), and because of their highly mobile endeavors, Norse-made and Norse-influenced objects have been found across a wide geographic expanse.<\/p>\n<p>An array of sophisticated, meticulously crafted objects survive. Fine imported materials were used, but local materials were also expertly handled by highly skilled craftspeople. Woodworking, for example, was an essential skill, and detailed wood carvings have been uncovered and restored. This material is susceptible to rot and fire, and so we can conclude that what survives today is a small fraction of the woodwork that once existed.<\/p>\n<p>Objects made from more tenacious materials\u2014like metal and stone\u2014comprise the majority of what art historians have left to examine. Metal jewelry, storage vessels, and other utilitarian objects have been uncovered from burials and hoards. Ivory and bone carvings have also been found, as have a limited number of precious textiles and stone carvings.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-styles-of-viking-art\">The styles of Viking Art<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1792\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1792\" style=\"width: 1430px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/Viking-styles-version-2.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1792\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image255.jpeg\" alt=\"A horizontal timeline displays six Viking art styles from 775 C.E. to circa 1125 C.E., featuring labeled photographs of representative artifacts for Oseberg, Borre, Jellinge, Mammen, Ringerike, and Urnes styles. Each artifact showcases distinct design elements, such as intricate carvings, metalwork, and ornamental patterns, illustrating the evolution of Viking artistic expression over time.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"415\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image255.jpeg 1430w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image255-300x87.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image255-1024x297.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image255-768x223.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image255-65x19.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image255-225x65.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image255-350x102.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1430px) 100vw, 1430px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1792\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Viking Art Styles<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Many objects served practical and symbolic purposes, and their complex decorative patterns can be a challenge to untangle. Highly-stylized motifs weave around and flow into one another, so that following a single form from one end to the other can be difficult\u2014if there are end points at all. Imagery was created to communicate ideas about social relations, religious beliefs, and to recall a mythic past.\u00a0Although many objects served pagan intentions, Christian themes began to intermingle with them as new ideas filtered into the region.\u00a0Viking art\u00a0is visually distinct from contemporaneous cultures (as traded objects and integrated customs demonstrate), and represents\u00a0a unique way of thinking about the world.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1793\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1793\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/gripping-beast-ribbon-animal-3.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1793\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image256.jpeg\" alt=\"Various beasts are carved into the Oseberg ship\u2019s stern: a ribbon-animal (in blue, also called a streaming-animal); gripping-beasts rendered with humanoid heads (in red); and more ambiguous forms that echo the bodies of creatures seen at the prow (in green). Oseberg oak longship and detail of prow with ribbon-animal and gripping-beast motifs, 9th century, found in burial mound near T\u00f8nsberg\" width=\"870\" height=\"1066\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image256.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image256-245x300.jpeg 245w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image256-836x1024.jpeg 836w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image256-768x941.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image256-65x80.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image256-225x276.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image256-350x429.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1793\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Various beasts are carved into the Oseberg ship\u2019s stern: a ribbon-animal (in blue, also called a streaming-animal); gripping-beasts rendered with humanoid heads (in red); and more ambiguous forms that echo the bodies of creatures seen at the prow (in green). Oseberg oak longship and detail of prow with\u00a0ribbon-animal and gripping-beast motifs, 9th century, found in burial mound near T\u00f8nsberg\u00a0(Viking ship museum, Oslo; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/DhniJh\">Chad K<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The animal motifs that frequently embellished objects are actually a continuation of artistic traditions from previous periods. Two were particularly widespread: the \u201cribbon-animal\u201d and the \u201cgripping beast.\u201d We see both of these on the stern of the Oseberg longship.<\/p>\n<p>The ribbon-animal was typically pictured as a highly abstracted creature with an elongated body and simplified features,\u00a0appearing individually and in pairs. In contrast, the gripping beast\u2014a fantastical creature with clearly defined limbs\u2014was anchored to the borders of designs and surrounding creatures. Other animal motifs developed throughout the period, and human figures were also present. These elements, which are thought to have had particular assigned meanings, are central to the categorization of Viking Age art styles.<\/p>\n<p>The Viking Art styles are:<\/p>\n<table>\n<colgroup>\n<col style=\"width: 50%\" \/>\n<col style=\"width: 50%\" \/> <\/colgroup>\n<thead>\n<tr>\n<th>\n<ul>\n<li>Oseberg<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/th>\n<th>c. 775\/800\u2013875 C.E.<\/th>\n<\/tr>\n<\/thead>\n<tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li>Borre<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>c. 850\u2013975 C.E.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li>Jellinge<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>c. 900\u2013975 C.E.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li>Mammen<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>c. 960s\u20131000\/1025 C.E.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li>Ringerike<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>c. 990\u20131050 C.E.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<tr>\n<td>\n<ul>\n<li>Urnes<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/td>\n<td>c. 1050\u20131125 C.E.<\/td>\n<\/tr>\n<\/tbody>\n<\/table>\n<h3 id=\"oseberg-style\">Oseberg style<\/h3>\n<p>The Oseberg style was popular throughout mainland Scandinavia. Some of the most remarkable wood carving from the Viking Age was created in this style. A spectacular oak longship\u2014found within the burial mound from which the style\u2019s name was derived\u2014is one of the most studied works of the period. Featuring carvings of the ribbon-animal and gripping-beast motifs in fluid combinations on its prow, it served as an elite funerary vessel for two women.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1794\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1794\" style=\"width: 1430px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/oseberg-ship-and-detail.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1794\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image257.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a Viking ship displayed indoors, showcasing its long, narrow wooden structure with a high, curved prow. Close-up highlights intricate carved dragon and animal motifs on the ship's bow, emphasizing craftsmanship and historical significance.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"557\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image257.jpeg 1430w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image257-300x117.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image257-1024x399.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image257-768x299.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image257-65x25.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image257-225x88.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image257-350x136.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1430px) 100vw, 1430px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1794\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Oseberg oak longship and detail of prow, 9th century, found in burial mound near T\u00f8nsberg\u00a0(Viking ship museum, Oslo; left photo: Petter Ulleland,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a> and right\u00a0photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/8VFwbh\">mararie<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The Oseberg style shows a strong interplay between zoomorphic and geometric patterns that continues artistic traditions predating the Viking Age.<\/p>\n<p>In Oseberg art, animal motifs\u2014which included birds, human faces sometimes thought to be masks (such as we see on the Oseberg burial cart),\u00a0and the gripping beast\u2014appear short and stocky, nearly equal in size, have rounded eyes, and tendril-like limbs.\u00a0These schematic figures are situated within fields that divide surfaces into clear segments and emphasize the balance and organization of images. With mixtures of high- and low-relief carvings flooding their surfaces in tightly interlacing ornament, very little background is visible.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1795\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1795\" style=\"width: 657px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1795\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image258.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a carved wooden figurehead featuring a stylized human face with large round eyes, a mustache, and an open mouth with vertical lines suggesting teeth. The figurehead is attached to a larger wooden structure with intricate carved patterns in the background, indicating traditional craftsmanship.\" width=\"657\" height=\"785\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image258.jpeg 657w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image258-251x300.jpeg 251w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image258-65x78.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image258-225x269.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image258-350x418.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 657px) 100vw, 657px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1795\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Bearded man, detail on the cart, before 800, wood, found in the Oseberg burial mound (Museum of Cultural History, photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Bearded_man_carved_cart_Oseberg_ship_burial_Norway.jpg\">Helen Simonsson<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The Oseberg ship burial included carved wooden posts, decorated\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.khm.uio.no\/english\/visit-us\/viking-ship-museum\/exhibitions\/oseberg\/the-sleighs\/\">sleds<\/a>, and an<a href=\"https:\/\/www.khm.uio.no\/english\/visit-us\/viking-ship-museum\/exhibitions\/oseberg\/the-oseberg-cart\/index.html\">\u00a0oak wagon<\/a>\u00a0that may have been made by master craftsmen from a nearby workshop. For example, the \u201cAcademician\u2019s\u201d animal head post is one of five wooden animal-headed posts found in the Oseberg ship burial.\u00a0Although the purpose of these objects remain unclear, their detailed carvings demonstrate advanced woodworking skills.<\/p>\n<p>Also included was a set of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/oseberg-tapestry.jpg\">tapestries<\/a>\u00a0that, despite their poor condition, are believed to depict battle scenes and a religious procession.\u00a0They illustrate many objects found in the grave, indicating that material goods were important for performing customs in life and in death.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1796\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1796\" style=\"width: 458px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/academicians-head-scaled-1-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1796\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image259.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a carved wooden sculpture featuring a long, curved neck with a detailed animal head, possibly a dragon or serpent, at the top. The head showcases intricate lattice patterns and textured scales, mounted on a rectangular wooden base with a small protruding handle.\" width=\"458\" height=\"814\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image259.jpeg 458w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image259-169x300.jpeg 169w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image259-65x116.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image259-225x400.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image259-350x622.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 458px) 100vw, 458px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1796\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The \u201cAcademician\u2019s\u201d animal head post, 9th century, wood, found in burial mound near T\u00f8nsberg (Oseberg ship burial) (Museum of Cultural History, Oslo; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Cf34567_400_C55000_100_Dyrehodestolpe_Oseberg_Akademikeren._Kulturhistorisk_museum_UiO_Oslo_Norway_(Kirsten_Helgeland_CC_BY-SA_4.0)_cropped.jpg\">Kirsten Helgeland<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"borre-style\">Borre style<\/h3>\n<p>Overlapping with the Oseberg style is the Borre style, which was also popular on the mainland. However, unlike the Oseberg style, Borre artistic conventions spread to the British Isles and the Baltic region as the Norsemen traveled both East and West. Exchanges between local and foreign artistic customs can be seen on objects found in these areas (with less overt characteristics appearing in the British Isles and more emphatic characteristics appearing to the east of the Baltic Sea).<\/p>\n<p>Borre objects swarm\u00a0the viewer with\u00a0d\u00e9cor. Forms are arranged in closed compositions with tight, knot-like interlacing that almost fully obscures the background. Animal motifs appear comparatively more naturalistic, with squat, relaxed bodies. Spirals are introduced to represent hip joints, and figures may be reduced to decorative heads or appear as fully in-the-round forms.<\/p>\n<p>On a silver disc-brooch from Gotland, a series of animal and human figures protrude outward into space. In a motif rarely seen outside of this style, the animals\u2019 heads are oriented backward, their tongues licking their backs. Alternating between them are four human figures who face the object\u2019s center, gripping as of yet unidentified protrusions from their necks.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1797\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1797\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1797\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image260.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate gold spur featuring intricate filigree work and detailed patterns along its curved structure. The spur displays symmetrical designs with small decorative elements and a clasp mechanism at one end.\" width=\"870\" height=\"489\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image260.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image260-300x169.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image260-768x432.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image260-65x37.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image260-225x126.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image260-350x197.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1797\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Gold spur from Verne Kloster in Norway, 10th century, Borre style, gold (The Museum of Cultural History, University of Oslo)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The \u201cring chain\u201d pattern, which combines ribbon shapes to create a continuous band, is another Borre style trend. It is seen on small metal objects, such as the gold spur from Verne Kloster, and seems to have influenced stone carving traditions on the Isle of Man and in northwest England. This gold spur allowed a rider to control the movements of a horse. Featuring\u00a0granulation\u00a0and\u00a0filigree\u00a0details, along with the \u201cring chain\u201d pattern, it is far more complicated than what is normally found in the Borre style.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"jellinge-style\">Jellinge style<\/h3>\n<p>Sitting chronologically between the Borre style and the soon-to-be-discussed Mammen style, the Jellinge style is a malleable one. It appears on a diverse body of objects and can share features with the previous and subsequent styles, leaving it difficult to define as a separate movement. It was named for a cast silver cup that was found in a royal burial mound in Jelling, Jutland, Denmark (an \u201ce\u201d was accidentally added to the style\u2019s name in the nineteenth century). Despite this mishap, this unique spelling helps art historians differentiate the style from the place.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1798\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1798\" style=\"width: 734px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/jelling-cup.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1798\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image261.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient metal goblet with intricate engraved designs featuring intertwined animal motifs and geometric patterns. The goblet has a wide rim, a slightly flared body, and a round pedestal base, showcasing craftsmanship and artistic style from a historical period.\" width=\"734\" height=\"784\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image261.jpeg 734w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image261-281x300.jpeg 281w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image261-65x69.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image261-225x240.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image261-350x374.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 734px) 100vw, 734px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1798\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Silver Cup, 958\/959, Jellinge style, found in Jelling, Jutland, Denmark (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.natmus.dk\/historical-knowledge\/denmark\/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad\/the-viking-age\/the-monuments-at-jelling\/jelling-and-the-new-faith\/\">National Museum of Denmark<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>We can see this style\u2019s main motif around its belly: a set of interlacing creatures that form a row of fluid, S-shaped forms. Within their bodies are single rows of beading (dot-like metal forms) and their feet resemble mitts. Lappets, the protrusions that look like ponytails, extend from their heads, distinguishing them from creatures of the Borre style.<\/p>\n<p>Compositions in this style open up and expand, with the backgrounds becoming more visible. The anatomy of animal and human figures is simpler, with bodies portrayed as solid masses defined by\u00a0individual or double contour\u00a0lines. Hip joints are represented by spirals, while ankles and wrists are defined by small, geometric segments\u00a0like those seen on the Jellinge cup. Heads have round or almond-shaped eyes and lips are apt to curl, while ribbon-animals are more prominent and the gripping beast fades.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1799\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1799\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/york-scaled-1-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1799\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image262.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient stone tablet featuring intricate carved patterns arranged in two horizontal bands. The tablet shows signs of age with visible cracks and weathering, highlighting detailed interwoven designs.\" width=\"870\" height=\"410\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image262.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image262-300x141.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image262-768x362.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image262-65x31.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image262-225x106.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image262-350x165.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1799\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Grave slab with Jellinge style elements, 10th century, gritstone, 26.8 x 37 cm, from the cemetery beneath York Minster (Image courtesy of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.yorkmuseumstrust.org.uk\/index.php?page_id=3591&amp;id=531%3AYORYM_1985_25-1.JPG&amp;search_query=bGltaXQ9MTYmQ0wlNUIwJTVEPUFyY2hhZW9sb2d5JkNMJTVCMSU1RD1Db3N0dW1lK2FuZCtUZXh0aWxlcyZWViU1QjAlNUQ9JkZOPSUyQSZHcyU1Qm9wZXJhdG9yJTVEPSUzRSUzRCZHcyU1QnZhbHVlJTVEPTcwMCZHZSU1Qm9wZXJhdG9yJTVEPSUzQyUzRCZHZSU1QnZhbHVlJTVEPTEwNjY=\">York Museums Trust<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The Jellinge style expanded as far as the Volga Bulgars and the Lower Volga River, along the Caspian Sea. It influenced art in western Europe, where stone sculptures from York show its considerable influence. A 10-century grave slab from the cemetery beneath York Minster, for instance, integrates the Jellinge style ornament with the\u00a0Anglican\u00a0tradition of marking burials with recumbent monuments.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"mammen-style\">Mammen style<\/h3>\n<p>Named for a ceremonial axe head found near the Danish village of Mammen, this innovative style was popularized as the \u201ccourt\u201d style of King Harald Bluetooth (King of Denmark and Norway who ruled from c. 958\u2013986). Its compositions span elongated waves and terminate in loose tendrils. We also see foliate motifs that were borrowed from other European traditions.\u00a0A few of the qualities associated with the Jellinge style are exaggerated in it, like geometric shapes that segment the\u00a0wrists, ankles, and other body parts\u00a0of animals.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1800\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1800\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/mammen-axe.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1800\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image263.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an intricately engraved metal axe head featuring detailed swirling patterns and animal motifs. The axe head has a broken handle area with a visible gold band near the top, highlighting craftsmanship and decorative techniques.\" width=\"870\" height=\"449\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image263.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image263-300x155.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image263-768x396.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image263-65x34.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image263-225x116.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image263-350x181.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1800\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Mammen-style axe (side with a possible tree), 970\u201371, inlaid with silver, from Mammen (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.natmus.dk\/historical-knowledge\/denmark\/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad\/the-viking-age\/the-grave-from-mammen\/an-axe-with-double-meaning\/#:~:text=One%20of%20the%20most%20magnificent,of%20iron%20with%20silver%20inlay.&amp;text=The%20motifs%20on%20the%20axe,or%20the%20pagan%20tree%20Yggdrasil.\">National Museum of Denmark<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>This can be seen at the base of the bird\u2019s neck on the Mammen axe, along with ornamental beading throughout its body. Its limbs\u00a0and wings are represented as expanding coils. Some background is visible, with glimpses of the underlying surface peeking out from beneath lively, energetic designs.<\/p>\n<p>Each side of the Mammen axe head is inlaid with silver: on one side, a set of winding tendrils; and, on the other, a fabulous bird loops through even more tendrils and has a prominent spiral hip joint. Axes were very important to the Norsemen, who used them for domestic purposes and in battle, but the inlays of the Mammen axe indicate that it was a ceremonial object.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1801\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1801\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/runestones-side-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1801\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image264.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph and illustration of a runestone featuring intricate Viking-age carvings with interwoven animal and serpent motifs. The illustration highlights key design elements in red, yellow, and purple, and includes runic inscriptions at the base, emphasizing the stone's artistic and historical significance.\" width=\"870\" height=\"519\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image264.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image264-300x179.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image264-768x458.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image264-65x39.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image264-225x134.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image264-350x209.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1801\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Jelling stone with traits of the Mammen style, 970 and circa 986, raised by King Bluetooth. Left: side B with Great Beast motif (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Jelling_gr_Stein_2.JPG\">Casiopeia<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>); right: diagram of side B showing Great Beast motif<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Often discussed are the\u00a0runestones\u00a0at Jelling (in Denmark), which feature traits of the Mammen style.\u00a0It is in this style that a magnificent motif emerges: the Great Beast. We can see it on one side of the Jelling Stone, standing above a runic inscription that references his conquest of Norway and the religious conversion of Denmark.<\/p>\n<p>The Great Beast is an amalgamation of several animals; it has features that appear similar to horns or antlers protruding from its head, and what appears to be a mane falling from its long neck.\u00a0Its feet\u00a0are segmented with claws,\u00a0and in some representations\u2014like the greater Jelling stone\u2014serpents may wind around its body to create\u00a0a dynamic interplay between the two motifs. The creature has been interpreted as a symbol of power.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1802\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1802\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/Christ-side-Jelling-runestone.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1802\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image265.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph showing a side-by-side comparison of an ancient runestone before and after color restoration. The left side displays the weathered, unpainted stone with faint carvings, while the right side reveals vibrant blue, red, yellow, and white painted patterns and figures, highlighting intricate Norse designs and a Christ figure.\" width=\"870\" height=\"531\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image265.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image265-300x183.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image265-768x469.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image265-65x40.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image265-225x137.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image265-350x214.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1802\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Jelling stone with traits of the Mammen style, 970 and circa 986, raised by King Bluetooth. Left: side A showing Christ bound in tendrils (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:Jelling_gr_Stein_3.JPG\">Casiopeia<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>); right: side A with reconstruction of original polychromy (<a href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/File:The_Jelling_Stone_-_VIKING_exhibition_at_the_National_Museum_of_Denmark_-_Photo_The_National_Museum_of_Denmark_(9084035770).jpg\">National Museum of Denmark<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Carved with runic inscriptions, these monumental stones were raised by King Bluetooth in memory of his deceased parents.\u00a0As a Christian convert, Bluetooth was responsible for Denmark\u2019s increasing acceptance and adoption of the religion.\u00a0He had one side of the larger stone depict Christ bound in tendrils that end in pronounced foliates (leaf forms). With an inscription surrounded by serpentine ornament on its third side (not illustrated), this object is exceptionally detailed for a runestone.<\/p>\n<p>Three particularly fine examples of the Mammen style survived into the modern era: the Cammin casket found in Kamen Pomorski, Poland, the Bamberg casket of southern Germany (now located in Munich), and the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/Leon-reliquary.png\">Le\u00f3n reliquary of Spain<\/a>, which is the only known Viking object to be found on the Iberian Peninsula.\u00a0These three examples demonstrate how Mammen-style objects have been found in many regions, attesting yet again to the far reach of Norse visual culture.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"ringerike-style\">Ringerike style<\/h3>\n<p>The Mammen style was short-lived, but the subsequent style\u2014called Ringerike\u2014was energized by its ingenuity. Continuing to use the double contour lines and spiral hip joints seen previously, Ringerike ornament is tightly composed. Bird motifs become more common and the Great Beast appears in full force, but neither feature the beaded ornamentation of Jellinge and Mammen creatures.<\/p>\n<p>The adoption of European influences into Norse artistic conventions are visible in the Ringerike style. Diverse uses of foliates and tendrils, for example, are features that were taken from Frankish and British influences and modified to suit Norse sensibilities.\u00a0Appearing in clusters of varying thicknesses, tendrils grow outward from animal bodies. This can be seen on several weathervanes (such as the Heggen weathervane), which were customarily gilded, fixed to the prows of ships, and later, repositioned on the roofs of churches. Their borders feature friezes of vegetal motifs, and on their plates are beasts\u2014including birds and the Great Beast\u2014tangled within foliates.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1803\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1803\" style=\"width: 679px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1803\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image266.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient carved stone relief depicting two stylized animals with spiral and linear patterns, possibly representing mythological or symbolic figures. The relief is divided into four broken pieces fitted together, showing detailed engravings and a border framing the scene.\" width=\"679\" height=\"577\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image266.jpeg 679w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image266-300x255.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image266-65x55.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image266-225x191.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image266-350x297.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 679px) 100vw, 679px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1803\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Stone from sarcophagus at St. Paul\u2019s churchyard, London (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ringerike_St_Paul_runetone.jpg\">David Beard MA<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>New variations on the Great Beast appear in the Ringerike style. The Great Beast may be shown with other Great Beasts, with multiple snakes, or with monsters we cannot always identify. A carved stone slab that was found at St. Paul\u2019s churchyard in London, for instance, shows the Great Beast with long tendrils\u00a0that curl at the far end (a variation of the lappets seen in the earlier Jellinge style)\u00a0forming tendril-like horns and tongue. It also has spiral hip joints. Its body is entwined with a serpent and another, smaller creature wraps around its forelimb. The carved stone slab comes from the end of a box-tomb. The runic inscription carved into its side suggests that the carver was Swedish.<\/p>\n<p>Due to the growing popularity of Christianity, funerary customs shift and there are fewer grave goods in the Ringerike style. Architecture, weapons, and ivory carvings become the more prevalent remains, and runestones\u2014although less detailed than the greater stone raised at Jelling\u2014become more common.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"urnes-style\">Urnes style<\/h3>\n<p>In the last phase of Viking Age art, the Urnes style, there is a turn to elegant, schematic forms. Animals are portrayed with tapered anatomical features and in regal stances.<\/p>\n<p>The Urnes style has three primary motifs: a standing, four-legged animal resembling the Great Beast; a snake-like creature but with a single foreleg and\/or hind leg; and a thin ribbon.\u00a0Perhaps associated with the growth of Christianity, there was an increased esteem\u00a0for this style across mainland Scandinavia.\u00a0Surviving examples of it can be seen on architecture and runestones, each of which could use pagan and Christian iconography simultaneously.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1804\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1804\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/09\/church-and-detail-carving-urnes-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1804\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image267.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a traditional wooden stave church situated in a grassy graveyard with mountains and a lake in the background, showcasing historic Scandinavian architecture. Close-up photograph of intricate wooden carvings featuring interwoven animal and abstract designs, highlighting detailed craftsmanship on the church's exterior.\" width=\"870\" height=\"448\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image267.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image267-300x154.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image267-768x395.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image267-65x33.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image267-225x116.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image267-350x180.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1804\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Left: the Urnes Stave Church with a view toward the north portal (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/gP87qf\">Evelina Ander<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>); right: detail from the Urnes Stave Church north portal, c. 1132, wood, Ornes, Norway (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Carvings_in_north_wall_portal,_Urnes_Stave_Church-1.jpg\">Bj\u00f8rn Erik Pedersen<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Although its origins are likely Swedish, this style is associated with a stave church in the Norwegian village of Urnes. Its relief carvings, which fully embody the style\u2019s characteristics, have been the subject of art-historical interpretation for some time. Their rhythmic compositions have elegant swooping, symmetrical, and interlace designs, and the background is more clearly visible.<\/p>\n<p>Although the use of spiral hip joints persist, the proportions of creatures\u2019 bodies curve and swell in a fashion that differentiates them from previous styles. Eyes are enlarged, nearly filling the heads, and lower jaws are given hook-like extensions. The feet of the Great Beast standing next to the door gracefully end in wisps that rest between delicate vegetal motifs. Although the structure is Christian in function, these decorative forms remain indebted to pre-Christian styles.<\/p>\n<p>As the Norsemen traveled, traded, and settled across new regions, this style\u2019s influences were carried\u00a0with them. Urnes-styled objects appear in the Baltic, and examples such as the Pitney Brooch demonstrate a localized adaptation of it in England. In Ireland,\u00a0the Norse re-occupation of Dublin fueled artistic interest in the Urnes style, with\u00a0metal and stone objects exhibiting its features.\u00a0When looking at gold filigree ornamenting the bell shrine of St. Patrick, for example, precisely-crafted patterns demonstrate interest in geometry and rhythmic compositions. The style\u2019s\u00a0acceptance there, however, came just as it was dying in Scandinavia.<\/p>\n<p>There is much more to\u00a0Norse\u00a0art than style. While objects were made by skilled workers, they were also situated within a complex society\u00a0whose endeavors\u00a0affected a vast geographic expanse. Those discussed here provide only a small window into the Viking Age.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-viking-age-comes-to-an-end\">The Viking Age comes to an end<\/h3>\n<p>Prior to the 10th century, Scandinavian regions were considered peripheral to western Europe. It was from the 10th through the 13th centuries that the introduction of Christianity and the introduction of European-style monarchy\u00a0eventually\u00a0brought the Viking Age to a close. The Ringerike and Urnes styles\u00a0described above\u00a0flourished through this time, until the European\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-art\/\">Romanesque style<\/a>\u00a0was popularized,\u00a0displacing pagan traditions.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"understanding-timelines-in-the-middle-ages\">Understanding Timelines in the Middle Ages<\/h2>\n<p>The overlapping timeline of artistic production in Western Europe during the Middle Ages can be confusing. The Viking Age lasted from the late 8th through the 11th century. When Vikings raided the monastery at Lindisfarne on the island of Iona in 793, the <em>Lindisfarne Gospels<\/em> illuminated manuscript was almost 100 years old. As such, the <em>Lindisfarne Gospels<\/em> completed in the Hiberno-Saxon style with its abstraction, interlacing lines, and animal forms predates the Viking era. While the Vikings were in the Oseberg period with its zoomorphic forms and abstract patterns, Charlemagne was being crowned emperor by the Pope in 800 C.E. and began to model his reign after the 4<sup>th<\/sup> century Roman \u201cChristian\u201d Emperor Constantine. It is not until the 10<sup>th<\/sup> through 13<sup>th<\/sup> centuries that the Viking world became increasingly Christian. The last phase of art in the Viking Age is classified as the Urnes period (c. 1050\u20131125 C.E.). By 1024 C.E., both the Carolingian Renaissance introduced by Charlemagne and the proceeding Ottonian rule of the Holy Roman Empire had concluded. Western Europe then enters the Romanesque period around 1000 C.E.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"charlemagne-and-the-carolingian-revival\">Charlemagne and The Carolingian revival<\/h2>\n<p>The video presents a brief introduction to Charlemagne\u2019s military campaigns and the cultural revival that he supported.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"Charlemagne and the Carolingian revival\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/pyDPJENZOs0?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"carolingian-art-an-introduction\">Carolingian art, an introduction<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1805\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1805\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/01\/CharlmagneMap-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1805\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image268.jpeg\" alt=\"Map showing territorial divisions in Europe and surrounding regions during Charlemagne's era, highlighting King of the Franks' domain in purple, Lombards in brown, Papal States in red, Umayyad Caliphate in yellow, and Byzantium in green. Key cities Aachen, Rome, and Constantinople are marked with red dots, with a statue of Charlemagne depicted on the left side.\" width=\"870\" height=\"521\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image268.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image268-300x180.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image268-768x460.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image268-65x39.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image268-225x135.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image268-350x210.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1805\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map of Europe at the time of Charlemagne<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/charlemagne-part-1-of-2\/\">Charlemagne<\/a>, King of the Franks and later Holy Roman Emperor, instigated a cultural revival known as the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/charlemagne-part-2-of-2\/\">Carolingian Renaissance<\/a>. This revival used\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-christian-art-and-architecture-after-constantine\/\">Constantine\u2019s Christian empire<\/a>\u00a0as its model, which flourished between 306 and 337. Constantine was the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity and left behind an impressive legacy of military strength and artistic patronage.<\/p>\n<p>Charlemagne saw himself as the new Constantine and instigated this revival by writing his\u00a0<em>Admonitio generalis<\/em>\u00a0(789) and\u00a0<em>Epistola de litteris colendis<\/em>\u00a0(c.794\u2013797). In the\u00a0<em>Admonitio generalis<\/em>, Charlemagne legislates church reform, which he believes will make his subjects more moral and in the\u00a0<em>Epistola de litteris colendis<\/em>, a letter to Abbot Baugulf of Fulda, he outlines his intentions for cultural reform. Most importantly, he invited the greatest scholars from all over Europe to come to court and give advice for his renewal of politics, church, art and literature.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1806\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1806\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/12\/51899982927_492b562517_o.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1806\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image269.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an Palatine Chapel interior featuring a domed ceiling adorned with golden mosaics and religious figures. The structure includes striped arches, tall columns, and stained glass windows, highlighting intricate architectural and artistic details.\" width=\"870\" height=\"574\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image269.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image269-300x198.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image269-768x507.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image269-65x43.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image269-225x148.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image269-350x231.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1806\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Odo of Metz, Palatine Chapel Interior, Aachen, 805 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2n5dYKR\">byzantologist<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Carolingian art survives in manuscripts, sculpture, architecture and other religious artifacts produced during the period 780\u2013900. These artists worked exclusively for the emperor, members of his court, and the bishops and abbots associated with the court. Geographically, the revival extended through present-day France, Switzerland, Germany and Austria.<\/p>\n<p>Charlemagne commissioned the architect Odo of Metz to construct a palace and chapel in Aachen, Germany. The chapel was consecrated in 805 and is known as the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/palatine-chapel-aachen\/\">Palatine Chapel<\/a>. This space served as the seat of Charlemagne\u2019s power and still houses his throne today.<\/p>\n<p>The Palatine Chapel is octagonal with a dome, recalling the shape of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/san-vitale\/\">San Vitale<\/a>\u00a0in Ravenna, Italy (completed in 548), but was built with barrel and groin vaults, which are distinctively late Roman methods of construction. The chapel is perhaps the best surviving example of Carolingian architecture and probably influenced the design of later European palace chapels.<\/p>\n<p>Charlemagne had his own scriptorium, or center for copying and illuminating manuscripts, at Aachen. Under the direction of Alcuin of York, this scriptorium produced a new script known as Carolingian miniscule. Prior to this development, writing styles or scripts in Europe were localized and difficult to read. A book written in one part of Europe could not be easily read in another, even when the scribe and reader were both fluent in Latin. Knowledge of Carolingian miniscule spread from Aachen was universally adopted, allowing for clearer written communication within Charlemagne\u2019s empire. Carolingian miniscule was the most widely used script in Europe for about 400 years.<\/p>\n<p>Figurative art from this period is easy to recognize. Unlike the flat, two-dimensional work of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-christian-art\/\">Early Christian<\/a>\u00a0and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/periods-of-the-byzantine-empire\/#:~:text=Early%20Byzantium%3A%20c.%20330%E2%80%93843\">Early Byzantine<\/a>\u00a0artists, Carolingian artists sought to restore the third dimension. They used classical drawings as their models and tried to create more convincing illusions of space.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1807\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1807\" style=\"width: 917px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1807\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image270.png\" alt=\"Medieval illuminated manuscript page depicting a seated evangelist with a halo, writing in a large book on a lectern. The scene includes a lion in the upper left corner, intricate border patterns in blue, red, and gold, and Latin text partially visible around the figure.\" width=\"917\" height=\"1322\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image270.png 917w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image270-208x300.png 208w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image270-710x1024.png 710w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image270-768x1107.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image270-65x94.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image270-225x324.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image270-350x505.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 917px) 100vw, 917px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1807\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">St. Mark from the\u00a0<em>Godescalc Gospel Lectionary<\/em>, folio 1v., c. 781\u201383 (<a href=\"https:\/\/archivesetmanuscrits.bnf.fr\/ark:\/12148\/cc34648s\">Biblioth\u00e8que nationale de France<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>This development is evident in tracing author portraits in illuminated manuscripts. The\u00a0<em>Godescalc Gospel Lectionary<\/em>, commissioned by Charlemagne and his wife Hildegard, was made circa 781\u201383 during his reign as King of the Franks and before the beginning of the Carolingian Renaissance. In the portrait of St. Mark, the artist employs typical Early Byzantine artistic conventions. The face is heavily modeled in brown, the drapery folds fall in stylized patterns and there is little or no shading. The seated position of the evangelist would be difficult to reproduce in real life, as there are spatial inconsistencies. The left leg is shown in profile and the other leg is show straight on. This author portrait is typical of its time.<\/p>\n<p>The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/saint-matthew-from-the-ebbo-gospels\/\"><em>Ebbo Gospels<\/em><\/a>\u00a0were made c. 816\u201335 in the Benedictine Abbey of Hautvillers for Ebbo, Archbishop of Rheims. The author portrait of St. Mark is characteristic of Carolingian art and the Carolingian Renaissance. The artist used distinctive frenzied lines to create the illusion of the evangelist\u2019s body shape and position. The footstool sits at an awkward unrealistic angle, but there are numerous attempts by the artist to show the body as a three-dimensional object in space. The right leg is tucked under the chair and the artist tries to show his viewer, through the use of curved lines and shading, that the leg has form. There is shading and consistency of perspective. The evangelist sitting on the chair strikes a believable pose.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1808\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1808\" style=\"width: 1000px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1808\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image271.png\" alt=\"A medieval illuminated manuscript illustration depicting a seated man in a white robe holding a scroll, looking upward toward a winged lion in the upper right corner. The scene is framed by a decorative border with floral motifs and a red and gold pattern, suggesting a religious or scholarly context.\" width=\"1000\" height=\"1316\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image271.png 1000w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image271-228x300.png 228w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image271-778x1024.png 778w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image271-768x1011.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image271-65x86.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image271-225x296.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image271-350x461.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1000px) 100vw, 1000px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1808\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">St. Mark from the\u00a0<em>Ebbo Gospels<\/em>, folio 60v., c. 816\u201335 (<a href=\"https:\/\/gallica.bnf.fr\/ark:\/12148\/btv1b8458375p\/f128.item.r=evangeliaire%20de%20ebon\">Biblioth\u00e8que Nationale de France<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Charlemagne, like Constantine before him, left behind an almost mythic legacy. The Carolingian Renaissance marked the last great effort to revive classical culture before the Late Middle Ages. Charlemagne\u2019s empire was led by his successors until the late ninth century. In early tenth century, the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ottonian-art-an-introduction\/\">Ottonians<\/a>\u00a0rose to power and espoused different artistic ideals.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"carolingian-art-palatine-chapel-aachen\">Carolingian Art: Palatine Chapel, Aachen<\/h2>\n<p>The octagonal plan references earlier churches and symbolizes regeneration. Was Charlemagne\u2019s throne at its center?<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"carolingian-art-and-the-classical-revival\">Carolingian art and the classical revival<\/h3>\n<p>The Palatine Chapel at Aachen is the most well-known and best-preserved\u00a0Carolingian\u00a0building. It is also an excellent example of the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/charlemagne-part-2-of-2\/\">classical revival style<\/a>\u00a0that characterized the architecture of Charlemagne\u2019s reign. The exact dates of the chapel\u2019s construction are unclear, but we do know that this palace chapel was dedicated to Christ and the Virgin Mary by Pope Leo III in a ceremony in 805, five years after Leo promoted Charlemagne from king to Holy Roman Emperor. The dedication took place about twenty years after Charlemagne moved the capital of the Frankish kingdom from Ravenna, in what is now Italy, to Aachen, in what is now Germany.<\/p>\n<p>In the construction of his chapel, Charlemagne made several strategic choices that linked his building to the legacies of ancient Rome and the fourth-century emperor Constantine. The Emperor Constantine was important because he was the first Christian emperor of Rome. The location for the new building was selected because it was an historic Roman site with hot springs that were used for bathing. The materials used for the chapel also invoked Rome; among them were columns and marble stones that Pope Hadrian permitted Charlemagne to transfer from Rome and Ravenna to Aachen around the year 798. A\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/pilgrimage-routes-and-the-cult-of-the-relic\/\">relic<\/a>\u00a0of the cloak of St. Martin was installed in the church at its consecration\u2014the choice of a\u00a0fourth-century Roman soldier who had a vision of Jesus after sharing his cloak with a beggar was another way to reinforce the link of Charlemagne\u2019s rule with Rome.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"two-important-models-the-church-of-the-holy-sepulchre-in-jerusalem-and-san-vitale-in-ravenna\">Two important models (the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem and San Vitale in Ravenna)<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1809\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1809\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/floorplans.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1809\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image272.jpeg\" alt=\"Floorplans diagram displays architectural layouts of three historic religious buildings: Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem (begun 325 C.E.), Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna (consecrated 547 C.E.), and Palatine Chapel in Aachen (consecrated 804 C.E.). Each black-and-white floorplan highlights structural elements like circular and polygonal shapes, apses, and nave arrangements, illustrating architectural evolution across centuries.\" width=\"870\" height=\"426\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image272.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image272-300x147.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image272-768x376.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image272-65x32.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image272-225x110.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image272-350x171.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1809\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Floorplans of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem; Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna; and Palatine Chapel, Aachen<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The chapel\u2019s classical style also referenced its Roman imperial lineage, particularly in its imitation of two significant Christian buildings: the\u00a0Holy Sepulchre\u00a0in Jerusalem and\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/san-vitale-2\/\">San Vitale<\/a>\u00a0in Ravenna. The Holy Sepulchre\u2019s building program was started in 325 C.E. by Constantine\u2019s mother, Saint Helena, and completed in 335.\u00a0The\u00a0centralized plan\u00a0and surrounding\u00a0ambulatory\u00a0and upper\u00a0gallery\u00a0is echoed in the plan of the Palatine Chapel. However, the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem is composed of two main buildings\u2014in addition to the rotunda that covers the tomb is a similar structure over the traditionally-accepted location of the crucifixion. The Holy Sepulchre may also have been the inspiration for the lion-head knockers of the chapel\u2019s bronze doors (below).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1810\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1810\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/aachenlion.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1810\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image273.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate metal door featuring a detailed lion head door knocker with an open mouth and intricate decorative border. The door has a textured surface with vertical panels and another smaller lion head knocker visible in the background.\" width=\"870\" height=\"543\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image273.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image273-300x187.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image273-768x479.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image273-65x41.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image273-225x140.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image273-350x218.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1810\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Door (detail), Palatine Chapel, Aachen (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:AachenerDom1652PortalLoewe.jpg\">Bojin<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Because it didn\u2019t receive extensive additions like the Holy Sepulchre, the San Vitale Chapel at Ravenna is probably the best comparison for what the Palatine Chapel would have looked like before its Gothic renovations. San Vitale\u00a0is a small octagonal church, with a centralized plan and a two-story ambulatory (below).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1811\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1811\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/vitale.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1811\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image274.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a church interior showcasing Roman and Byzantine architectural elements with tall arches, ornate mosaics, and large arched windows allowing natural light. The space features detailed wall decorations, vaulted ceilings, and a prominent apse with intricate artwork and multiple window panes.\" width=\"870\" height=\"569\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image274.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image274-300x196.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image274-768x502.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image274-65x43.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image274-225x147.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image274-350x229.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1811\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">San Vitale, Ravenna, begun in 526 under Ostrogothic rule, consecrated in 547, completed 548 (Photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/palatine-chapel-aachen\/\">Smarthistory<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The octagonal plan of the Palatine Chapel (see plans above) not only recalled that of its two most significant models, but also participated in the tradition of early Christian mausoleums and baptisteries, where the\u00a0eight sides were understood to be symbolic of regeneration\u2014referencing Christ\u2019s resurrection eight days after Palm Sunday. Its original dome was also based on classical models and bore an\u00a0apocalyptic\u00a0mosaic program, consisting of the\u00a0<em>agnus dei,\u00a0<\/em>or Lamb of God (which is, symbolically, Jesus Christ), surrounded by the tetramorph (symbols of the four Gospel writers) and the twenty-four elders described in Revelation 4:4. The\u00a0<em>agnus dei\u00a0<\/em>image was later obstructed by the installation of a chandelier.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1812\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1812\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/aix_dom_int_vue_cote.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1812\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image275.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate cathedral interior showcasing Roman inspired architecture with striped marble columns, arched windows, and a large circular chandelier. Upper walls feature detailed mosaics of robed figures on a gold background, highlighting religious artistry and historical craftsmanship.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1188\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image275.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image275-220x300.jpeg 220w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image275-750x1024.jpeg 750w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image275-768x1049.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image275-65x89.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image275-225x307.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image275-350x478.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1812\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Palatine Chapel interior (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Aix_dom_int_vue_cote.jpg\">Velvet<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The octagonal centralized plan of the Palatine Chapel is unique among Carolingian chapels; this may have been because, unlike a longitudinal plan which created a sense of processional direction toward the apse and altar, a centralized plan did not place special emphasis on the altar (and therefore may not have been as effective liturgically for the purpose of a chapel). That said, it does seem to have established\u00a0an association of Charlemagne with Christ; some scholars believe that Charlemagne\u2019s marble throne (below) was originally located in the center of the octagon on the first floor, that is, directly below the image of the\u00a0<em>agnus dei,\u00a0<\/em>thereby creating a kind of visual link between the emperor and the Christ.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1813\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1813\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/throne.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1813\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image276.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a stone throne with a stepped platform and a small altar table with two candles, set inside a historic building with marble walls and arched ceilings. The area is cordoned off with black posts and chains, highlighting the throne's significance as a ceremonial or religious artifact.\" width=\"870\" height=\"854\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image276.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image276-300x294.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image276-768x754.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image276-65x64.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image276-225x221.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image276-350x344.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1813\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Charlemagne\u2019s throne, Palatine Chapel, Aachen (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Aachener_Dom_BW_2016-07-09_13-53-18.jpg\">Berthold Werner<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>By presenting his capital at Aachen as a new Rome and himself as a new Constantine through the careful appropriation of late antique artwork and architecture, Charlemagne was not simply making a positive assertion about himself as ruler; he was also implicitly contrasting his reign with that of the Eastern Empire (the Byzantines), a negative stance that was also expressed around the same time in the\u00a0<em>Opus Caroli Regis contra Synodum\u00a0<\/em>(i.e., \u201c<em>The Work of King Charles against the Synod<\/em>), a detailed response to the\u00a0Second Council of Nicaea, written on his behalf by Theodulf of Orl\u00e9ans.<\/p>\n<p>Charlemagne\u2019s body was interred in the Palatine Chapel after his death in 814. The building would continue to be used for coronation ceremonies for another 700 years\u2014well into the sixteenth century.<\/p>\n<p>Major additions to the chapel began in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, significantly changing the building\u2019s profile and footprint with exterior chapels. After several fires in the seventeenth century, the dome was rebuilt and heightened.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1814\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1814\" style=\"width: 527px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/aachenout-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1814\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image277.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Palatine Chapel exterior featuring a large, ornate dome with multiple arched windows and intricate architectural details. The structure is set against a blue sky with scattered clouds, and green foliage is visible in the foreground.\" width=\"527\" height=\"800\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image277.jpeg 527w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image277-198x300.jpeg 198w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image277-65x99.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image277-225x342.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image277-350x531.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 527px) 100vw, 527px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1814\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Palatine Chapel exterior, Aachen, consecrated 805, Carolingian structure visible (lower two stories) (photo: CaS2000, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 id=\"ottonian-art-an-introduction\">Ottonian art, an introduction<\/h2>\n<p>After Charlemagne\u2019s legacy had begun to die out, the warlike tribes in what is now Germany (then Saxony) banded together to elect a king from among their nobility. In 919 C.E., they chose Henry the Liudolfing, the son of a high-ranking duke, a brilliant military strategist and a well-respected leader. Henry, dubbed \u201cthe Fowler\u201d because of his hobby of bird hunting, led the Saxon armies to a number of decisive victories against the Magyars and the Danes. \u00a0These newly secured borders ushered in a period of immense prosperity and artistic productivity for the Saxon empire.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1815\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1815\" style=\"width: 522px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1815\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image278.jpeg\" alt=\"Detail, Otto I presenting the Cathedral of Magdeburg, 962\u2013968, Ottonian, from the Cathedral of Magdeburg, probably made in Milan, northern Italy (The Metropolitan Museum of Art). On this ivory, Otto presents a symbolic model of the church to Christ for his blessing. As a humble servant, Otto is depicted smaller than the company of patron saints.\" width=\"522\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image278.jpeg 522w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image278-300x259.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image278-65x56.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image278-225x194.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image278-350x302.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 522px) 100vw, 522px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1815\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Detail,\u00a0<em>Otto I presenting the Cathedral of Magdeburg<\/em>, 962\u2013968, Ottonian, from the Cathedral of Magdeburg, probably made in Milan, northern Italy (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/toah\/works-of-art\/41.100.157\">The Metropolitan Museum of Art<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>). On this ivory, Otto presents a symbolic model of the church to Christ for his blessing. As a humble servant, Otto is depicted smaller than the company of patron saints.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Henry\u2019s son Otto I (who became emperor in 962) lends his name to the \u201cOttonian\u201d period. He forged an important alliance with the Pope, which allowed him to be crowned the first official Holy Roman Emperor since 924. This contact with Rome was extremely important to Ottonian artistic development, since each Ottonian king was determined to define himself as a Roman Emperor in the style of Constantine and Charlemagne. This meant perpetuating a highly intellectual court and creating an extensive artistic legacy.<\/p>\n<p>Ottonian art takes a number of traditional medieval forms, including elegantly illuminated manuscripts, lavish metalwork, intricate carving, and Romanesque churches and cathedrals. Perhaps the most famous of the Ottonian artistic innovations is the Saxon Romanesque architecture style, which is marked by a careful attention to balance and mathematical harmony. \u00a0This focus on geometry is based on the texts de Arithmatica and Ars Geometriae by the 6th century philosopher Boethius. The Ottonians held mathematical sciences in high regard and this is reflected in many of their artistic productions.<\/p>\n<p>The illuminated manuscripts produced by Ottonian \u201cscriptoria,\u201d or monastery painting and writing schools, provide documentation of both Ottonian religious and political customs and the stylistic preferences of the period. \u00a0Manuscripts were most often produced of religious texts, and usually included a dedication portrait commemorating the book\u2019s creation. \u00a0The royal or religious donor is usually shown presenting the book to the saint of his or her choice.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1816\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1816\" style=\"width: 544px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1816\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image279.jpeg\" alt=\"Illuminated manuscript page featuring a central circular illustration of a crowned figure holding a child, surrounded by Latin text and intricate gold, blue, and red decorative borders. Additional smaller circular portraits and detailed scenes of figures and animals frame the main image, showcasing medieval religious iconography and artistic style.\" width=\"544\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image279.jpeg 544w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image279-300x248.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image279-65x54.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image279-225x186.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image279-350x290.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 544px) 100vw, 544px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1816\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Uta Codex (Uta Presents the Codex to Mary), c. 1020, Munich, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.bsb-muenchen.de\/en\/collections\/manuscripts\/about-the-collection\/\">Bayerische Staatsbibliothek<\/a>, Clm. 13601, f. 2, recto (<a href=\"http:\/\/www.wdl.org\/en\/item\/13479\/\">digitized<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Here we see a powerful abbess, Uta, presenting her codex to St. Mary. \u00a0Many manuscripts also included a page depicting the artist or scribe of the work, acknowledging that the production of a book required not only money but also artistic labor.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1817\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1817\" style=\"width: 375px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1817\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image280.png\" alt=\"Medieval illuminated manuscript illustration depicting a seated haloed figure receiving a gift from a standing figure dressed in dark robes. The scene is framed by architectural elements with patterned floor tiles and draped curtains, highlighting a religious or ceremonial context.\" width=\"375\" height=\"450\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image280.png 375w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image280-250x300.png 250w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image280-65x78.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image280-225x270.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image280-350x420.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 375px) 100vw, 375px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1817\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hillinus Codex (Hillinus Presents the Codex to St. Peter), c.1020, Cologne Dombibliothek, folio 16, verso, manuscript 12 (digitized)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In the Hillinus Codex, a monk presents the codex that he has written or painted (or both!) to St. Peter. \u00a0The work of the artist and scribe were often one and the same, as can be seen in many of the fantastic decorated initials that begin books or chapters in Ottonian Manuscripts. \u00a0As you can see from the dedication pictures, the manuscripts in question are often depicted as they were frequently displayed, that is with the text securely enclosed between lavish metal covers.<\/p>\n<p>Ottonian metalwork took many forms, but one of the most common productions was bejeweled book covers for their precious manuscripts.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/wasserzeichen-projekte-6-scaled.jpg\">This cover<\/a>\u00a0is one of the most expensive that survives; it includes not only numerous jewels, but an ivory carving of the death of the Virgin Mary.<\/p>\n<p>On a larger scale, clerics like Bernward of Hildesheim\u00a0cast his 15-foot\u00a0doors depicting the fall and redemption of mankind out of single pieces of bronze. This was an enormous undertaking, and the process was so complex that it would not be replicated until the Renaissance.<\/p>\n<p>For a modern viewer, Ottonian art can be a little difficult to understand. \u00a0The depictions of people and places don\u2019t conform to a naturalistic style, and the symbolism is often obscure. \u00a0When you look at Ottonian art, keep in mind that the aim for these artists was not to create something that looked \u201crealistic,\u201d but rather to convey abstract concepts, many of which are deeply philosophical in nature. \u00a0The focus on symbolism can also be one of the most fascinating aspects of studying Ottonian art, since you can depend on each part of the compositions to mean something specific. \u00a0The more time you spend on each composition, the more rewarding discoveries emerge.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"ottonian-art-gospel-book-of-otto-iii\">Ottonian Art: Gospel Book of Otto III<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1818\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1818\" style=\"width: 1429px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/wasserzeichen-projekte-resize.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1818\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image281.jpeg\" alt=\"A medieval illuminated manuscript painting depicting a royal court scene with a seated king holding a scepter and orb on the right page, surrounded by attendants. The left page shows a procession of crowned figures carrying offerings, rendered in vibrant colors with detailed clothing and architectural elements.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"972\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image281.jpeg 1429w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image281-300x204.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image281-1024x697.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image281-768x522.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image281-65x44.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image281-225x153.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image281-350x238.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1429px) 100vw, 1429px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1818\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Double page opening: Provinces Bringing Tribute (f.23v.) and Ruler Portrait of Otto III (f.24),\u00a0<em>Gospels of Otto III,<\/em> c. 1000, ink, gold, paint, parchment, each page 33.4 x 24.2 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/daten.digitale-sammlungen.de\/0009\/bsb00096593\/images\/index.html?id=00096593&amp;seite=21&amp;fip=193.174.98.30&amp;nativeno=&amp;groesser=100%25\">Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich, Clm.4453<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The double page opening of the ruler portrait of Otto III and the accompanying image of provinces bringing tribute is taken from the\u00a0<em>Gospels of Otto III<\/em>, one of the most magnificent\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/medieval-manuscripts\/\">manuscripts<\/a>\u00a0to have come down to us from the\u00a0early medieval period. It is thought to have been made about the year 1000 at the Benedictine monastery of Reichenau on Lake Constance where Austria, Switzerland, and Germany converge and belongs to a group of stylistically related manuscripts from the monastery known as the Liuthar group. The monk Liuthar is represented in another gospel-book made for Otto III that is now in the cathedral treasury at Aachen (Aachen, Domschatzkammer, G25). Liuthar is now thought to have been a scribe rather than an artist but the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-work-of-the-scribe\/\">scribe<\/a>\u00a0was usually the main co-ordinating figure for a manuscript project.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1819\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1819\" style=\"width: 749px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/wasserzeichen-projekte-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1819\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image282.jpeg\" alt=\"A medieval illuminated manuscript illustration depicting a central figure with outstretched arms beneath a circular arrangement of angelic beings and a winged bull symbol, set against a gold background. The scene is framed by ornate red columns with bird motifs, and two green animals graze at the figure's feet, highlighting religious and symbolic themes.\" width=\"749\" height=\"958\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image282.jpeg 749w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image282-235x300.jpeg 235w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image282-65x83.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image282-225x288.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image282-350x448.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 749px) 100vw, 749px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1819\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Luke the Evangelist,\u00a0<em>Gospels of Otto III<\/em>, c. 1000, ink, gold, paint, parchment, 33.4 x 24.2 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/daten.digitale-sammlungen.de\/0009\/bsb00096593\/images\/index.html?fip=193.174.98.30&amp;seite=58&amp;pdfseitex=\">Bayerische Stattsbibliothek, Munich, Clm.4453<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The pages of the\u00a0<em>Gospels of Otto III<\/em>\u00a0manuscript measure 334 by 242 millimeters and are made of parchment. The script is written in ink, with gold initials, and the manuscript is extensively illustrated with portraits of the four evangelists (the authors of the four gospels), and scenes from the life of Christ as well as the ruler portrait. The front cover is decorated with precious jewels and inset with a Byzantine ivory representing the dormition or death of the Virgin Mary. The double page is near the beginning of the manuscript before the gospel texts.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1820\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1820\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/wasserzeichen-projekte-6-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1820\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image283.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ornate medieval book cover featuring a central carved ivory panel depicting a religious scene surrounded by a gold background adorned with numerous colorful gemstones and pearls. The cover's intricate design highlights craftsmanship with a symmetrical arrangement of jewels in various shapes and sizes, emphasizing its historical and artistic significance.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1189\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image283.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image283-220x300.jpeg 220w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image283-749x1024.jpeg 749w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image283-768x1050.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image283-65x89.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image283-225x308.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image283-350x478.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1820\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Front cover,\u00a0<em>Gospels of Otto III,<\/em> c. 1000, each page 33.4 x 24.2 cm, ink, gold, paint, parchment (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.bsb-muenchen.de\/en\/collections\/manuscripts\/about-the-collection\/\">Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Munich<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>We do not know the name of the artist (as is the case for most of the painters from this period), but he most likely belonged to a team of craftsmen working on the manuscript. In devising the double opening, he appears not to have worked from his imagination but to have followed an earlier source such as the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/Cwg0ereXgAAVaNZ.jpeg\">ruler portrait of Charles the Bald<\/a>\u00a0in the ninth-century manuscript known as the\u00a0<em>Codex Aureus of Saint Emmeram<\/em>\u00a0(Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm.14000, f. 5 v.).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1821\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1821\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/ruler-portrait-otto.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1821\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image284.jpeg\" alt=\"Medieval-style painting depicting a crowned king seated on a throne, holding a scepter and an orb with a cross, surrounded by attendants in robes. The scene features rich colors like green, red, and gold, with architectural elements such as columns and a canopy, highlighting royal authority and religious symbolism.\" width=\"870\" height=\"977\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image284.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image284-267x300.jpeg 267w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image284-768x862.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image284-65x73.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image284-225x253.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image284-350x393.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1821\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Ruler portrait of Otto III (f.24),\u00a0<em>Gospels of Otto III,<\/em> c. 1000, ink, gold, paint, parchment, each page 33.4 x 24.2 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/daten.digitale-sammlungen.de\/0009\/bsb00096593\/images\/index.html?id=00096593&amp;seite=21&amp;fip=193.174.98.30&amp;nativeno=&amp;groesser=100%25\">Bayerische Stattsbibliothek, Munich, Clm.4453<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>On the right side of the double page, emperor Otto III is shown seated frontally, crowned, and holding a golden orb and a sceptre surmounted by an eagle. Otto III was the Holy Roman Emperor and nominally ruled over territories corresponding to modern-day Germany, France, and northern Italy. The title Holy Roman Emperor dates back to\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/charlemagne-part-1-of-2\/\">Charlemagne<\/a>\u00a0and like this earlier emperor,\u00a0Otto III\u00a0was crowned by the Pope in Rome\u00a0where Otto III spent most of his reign.\u00a0Otto III was Holy Roman Emperor from 996 to 1002, when he died at the age of 21.<\/p>\n<p>Otto III looks out at us with hypnotic eyes, and is dressed in green and the imperial purple. He was the son of Otto II, who died when Otto III was three, and a Byzantine Princess called Theophanu, and we know that he was an educated man.<\/p>\n<p>He is flanked on either side by members of his court: on the right by those who fight (two members of the nobility who carry a sword, a lance, and shield) and, on the left, by those who pray (two members of the clergy who hold books).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1822\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1822\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/wasserzeichen-projekte-4.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1822\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image285.jpeg\" alt=\"Medieval-style illustration depicting four crowned female figures labeled Sicilia, Calabria, Apulia, and Roma, each holding symbolic objects such as a drum, a scroll, a palm branch, and a bowl. The figures wear long, flowing robes in muted colors with detailed borders, standing barefoot on green ground against a pink and gray background.\" width=\"870\" height=\"977\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image285.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image285-267x300.jpeg 267w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image285-768x862.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image285-65x73.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image285-225x253.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image285-350x393.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1822\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Provinces Bringing Tribute (f.23v.),\u00a0<em>Gospels of Otto III,<\/em> c. 1000, ink, gold, paint, parchment, 33.4 x 24.2 cm\u00a0(<a href=\"https:\/\/daten.digitale-sammlungen.de\/0009\/bsb00096593\/images\/index.html?id=00096593&amp;seite=21&amp;fip=193.174.98.30&amp;nativeno=&amp;groesser=100%25\">Bayerische Stattsbibliothek, Munich, Clm.4453<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The pendant image depicts four personifications of the territories over which Otto ruled and who are shown bringing him tribute. They are identified as: Sclavinia (Slavic east), Germania (roughly Germany), Gallia (roughly France), and Roma (Rome). The device of the personification (whereby an abstract idea is represented by a human figure, usually a female one) goes back to\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/classic-classical-and-classicism-explained\/\">classical art<\/a>. There is a parallel between this scene and that of the adoration of the three magi (represented as crowned kings, a tenth-century innovation) bringing gifts to the infant Christ (<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/magi-otto.jpg\">represented on f.29 of the manuscript<\/a>), which underlines the quasi-divine nature of the Emperor.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1823\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1823\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/otto-portrait-withborder.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1823\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image286.jpeg\" alt=\"Detail of a medieval-style illustration depicting a central figure wearing a crown and holding a scepter and orb, flanked by six attendants or nobles. The artwork features detailed robes, a green draped backdrop with white patterns, and architectural elements like columns with ornate capitals.\" width=\"870\" height=\"532\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image286.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image286-300x183.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image286-768x470.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image286-65x40.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image286-225x138.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image286-350x214.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1823\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Ruler portrait of Otto III (f.24),<em> Gospels of Otto III,<\/em> c. 1000, ink, gold, paint, parchment, 33.4 x 24.2 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/daten.digitale-sammlungen.de\/0009\/bsb00096593\/images\/index.html?id=00096593&amp;seite=21&amp;fip=193.174.98.30&amp;nativeno=&amp;groesser=100%25\">Bayerische Stattsbibliothek, Munich, Clm.4453<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>This is not a portrait in the conventional sense of a likeness and gives us very little idea of what Otto III must have looked like. Otto III is represented out of proportion\u00a0with the much smaller\u00a0figures that flank him\u2014indicating his status. The opening pages probably represent an ideal of Otto III\u2019s rule rather than\u00a0the reality of his situation as his rule was fraught with division.\u00a0The style of the opening looks back to late antique illusionism (note, for example, the lozenge-shaped ornament in the borders, and the atmospheric backgrounds which recall, for example, such manuscripts as the\u00a0<em>Vatican Vergil<\/em>\u00a0made in about 400) but has an extraordinary flatness to it as if the scene has been pressed between two panes of glass.<\/p>\n<p>After Otto\u2019s death, the manuscript passed to his cousin and heir, Henry II, who gave it to the cathedral of Bamberg which he founded, where it remained until 1803, when during the secularization of the church, it was transferred to the Bavarian State Library. The manuscript is rarely exhibited, but a facsimile of it has been made.<\/p>\n<p>This style is known as\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ottonian-art-an-introduction\/\">Ottonian<\/a>, a period style concept that covers both the reigns of the three emperors bearing the name Otto and of their immediate successors\u00a0through the late eleventh century. It both precedes and anticipates the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/a-beginners-guide-to-romanesque-art\/\">Romanesque<\/a>\u00a0style.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-11\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n<p>Summarizing art in the Middle Ages is challenging: the timeline can be confusing, stylistic features overlap across different cultures, and it is less cohesive in comparison to the art and architecture of the Roman Empire. It was a time of migration and cultural interchange. It was also a time of rich artistic production, particularly in personal objects of adornment and illuminated manuscripts. From the Carolingian Renaissance under Charlemagne, there began a revival of interest in Classical ideas. After Carolingian art, Ottonian art transitioned into the period called Romanesque around 1000 C.E. The Romanesque (meaning Roman-like) returned Western Europe to the architectural ideas grounded in the Ancient Roman world. Although the Western Roman Empire collapsed in 476 C.E., the Eastern Roman Empire continued to flourish during Europe\u2019s \u201cdark ages.\u201d The Eastern Roman Empire came to be known as the Byzantine Empire.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-11\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\n<p>The following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and are licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\n<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\n<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\n<li>Understanding Timelines in the Middle Ages<\/li>\n<li>Conclusion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Dr. Nancy Ross, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-the-middle-ages\/\">The Middle Ages, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-sutton-hoo-ship-burial\/\">Sutton Hoo Ship Burial<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, March 3, 2017.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Kathleen Doyle, The British Library and Louisa Woodville, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lindisfarne-gospels\/\">The Lindisfarne Gospels<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Andrea C. Snow, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/viking-art\/\">Art of the Viking Age<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, October 1, 2020.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/charlemagne-part-2-of-2\/\">Charlemagne (part 2 of 2): The Carolingian revival<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, July 4, 2018.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Nancy Ross, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/carolingian-art-an-introduction\/\">Carolingian art, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, July 6, 2018.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Jennifer Awes Freeman, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/palatine-chapel-aachen\/\">Palatine Chapel, Aachen<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, June 11, 2023.<\/li>\n<li>Victoria Valdes, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ottonian-art-an-introduction\/\">Ottonian art, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 25, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Andreas Petzold, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/gospel-book-of-otto-iii\/\"><em>Gospel Book of Otto III<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"menu_order":14,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1824","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1824","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"version-history":[{"count":3,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1824\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1995,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1824\/revisions\/1995"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1824\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1824"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1824"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1824"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1824"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}