{"id":1781,"date":"2026-07-16T17:31:31","date_gmt":"2026-07-16T17:31:31","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/chapter\/early-christian-art-and-architecture\/"},"modified":"2026-07-27T17:33:00","modified_gmt":"2026-07-27T17:33:00","slug":"early-christian-art-and-architecture","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/chapter\/early-christian-art-and-architecture\/","title":{"raw":"Early Christian Art and Architecture","rendered":"Early Christian Art and Architecture"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-10\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\r\nThe earliest expressions of the Christian faith in art and architecture showed iconographic and stylistic influences from Ancient Roman art: from the contrapposto in sculpture to the basilica in architecture. Early Christian architects under the patronage of the newly converted Roman Emperor Constantine changed the basilica from a secular, Roman building into early Christian architecture. With Christianity emerging in the 1<sup>st<\/sup> century C.E. in context of the Roman Empire, early Christians debated upon the role of images in religious art. The ideas and forms of early Christian aesthetics serve as a foundation for later Byzantine and Medieval art and architecture.\r\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-10\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>Christ as the Good Shepherd<\/em>, catacomb of Priscilla, Rome, 3rd century C.E., fresco<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Christ as the Good Shepherd<\/em>, 300\u2013350 C.E., marble<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Old St. Peter's Basilica<\/em>, Rome<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/em>, c. 359 C.E., marble<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>The Good Shepherd<\/em>,\u00a0<em>Mausoleum of Galla Placidia<\/em>, Ravenna, c. 425-426 C.E., mosaic<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 id=\"term-list-10\">Term List<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Jesus<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Gospel<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Apostles\/disciples<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Constantine<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Theodosius<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Old Testament<\/li>\r\n \t<li>New Testament<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Nicene Creed<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Trinity<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Eucharist<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Public cult<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Mystery cult<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Monotheism<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Catacomb<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Cubiculum<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Loculi<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Liturgy<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Edict of Milan<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Chi Rho<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Basilica<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Narthex<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Nave<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Aisle<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Apse<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Transept<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Altar<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sarcophagus<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Traditio legis<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Adventus<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Mosaic<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Tesserae<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2 id=\"christianity-an-introduction\">Christianity, an introduction<\/h2>\r\n<h3 id=\"how-little-we-know\">How little we know<\/h3>\r\nAlmost nothing is known about Jesus beyond biblical accounts, although we do know quite a bit more about the cultural and political context in which he lived\u2014for example, Jerusalem in the first century. What follows is an introductory historical summary of Christianity. It hardly needs stating that there are many interpretations and disagreements among historians.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1759\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/07\/StandardScenes.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1759\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-scaled.jpeg\" alt=\"Mosaic artwork depicting a central Christ with a halo holding a cross staff, surrounded by six white sheep in a pastoral setting with plants and rocks. The scene uses gold, blue, and earth tones, framed by a decorative arch with intricate patterns and symbols.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1534\" \/><\/a> <em>The Good Shepherd<\/em>, The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, 425 C.E., mosaic, Ravenna, Italy (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/e8FGkW\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"jesus-v.-rome\">Jesus v.\u00a0Rome<\/h3>\r\nThe biblical Jesus, described in the Gospels as the son of a carpenter, was a Jew and a champion of the underdog. He rebelled against the occupying Roman government in what was then Palestine (at this point the Roman Empire stretched across the Mediterranean). He was crucified for upsetting the social order and challenging the authority of the Romans and their local Jewish leaders. The Romans crucified Jesus, a typical method of execution\u2014especially for those accused of crimes against the government.\r\n\r\nJesus\u2019s followers claim that after three days he rose from the grave and later ascended into heaven. His original followers, known as disciples or apostles, traveled great distances and spread Jesus\u2019s message. His life is recorded in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, which are found in the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-christian-bible-2\/\">New Testament<\/a>. \u201cChrist\u201d means messiah or savior (this belief in a savior is a traditional part of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/judaism-an-introduction-2\/\">Jewish theology<\/a>).\r\n<h3 id=\"old-and-new-testaments\">Old and\u00a0New Testaments<\/h3>\r\nEarly on, there were many ways that Christianity was practiced and understood, and it wasn\u2019t until the second century that Christianity began to be understood as a religion distinct from Judaism (it\u2019s helpful to remember that Judaism itself had many different sects). Christians were sometimes severely persecuted by the Romans. In the early fourth century, the Roman Emperor\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-colossus-of-constantine\/\">Constantine<\/a>\u00a0experienced a miraculous conversion and made it legally acceptable to be a Christian. Less than a hundred years later, the Roman Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official state religion.\r\n\r\nThe\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-christianity-an-introduction\/\">first Christians<\/a>\u00a0were Jews (whose bible we refer to as the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/judaism-an-introduction-2\/\">Hebrew Bible<\/a>\u00a0or\u00a0<em>Tanakh<\/em>).\u00a0But soon pagans too converted to this new religion. Christians saw the predictions of the prophets in the Hebrew Bible come to fulfillment in the life of Jesus Christ\u2014hence the \u201cBible\u201d of the Christians includes both the Hebrew Bible (or the Old Testament) and the New Testament.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1760\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Isaac-Ravenna.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1760\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image225.jpeg\" alt=\"A colorful mosaic depicting a biblical scene with a central figure in white robes raising a hand over a kneeling child on an altar, accompanied by a lamb and two seated figures with halos. The mosaic features detailed greenery, birds, and a decorative border with circular patterns, illustrating a moment of sacrifice.\" width=\"870\" height=\"629\" \/><\/a> Sacrifice of Isaac, mosaic, early 6th century, San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/pov_steve\/33602835706\/in\/photolist-Pd6WYY-8nQAaf-296KoNn-2fW1Fpx-28zZbmu-cARHPw-e9BFp8-9YkDhW-7VMDFS-28zZ5jE-Rgfsig-2f3jRm2-JuMZ9W-7D3tar-JuMZFs-c5QXkE-c5QXXu-c5QZao-cARHVQ-c67JYd-cARJ9j-Tcnjmj-28FHZDb-Ln6gPU-cARHEG-9YkCRG-QtCger-419Pqc-bCCLJb-cARHJJ-kH7LXR-cARHAW-9N8yZo-9cdyEu-MFX3wM-c5QZXj-ehNq8n-5RdjjJ-qjKFTz-cARHuf-9sR5d8-cARJ1Q-2iy6DgY-TopYkv-2iy7SP8-xt4Y4R-2rRtSM6-2d1VUXb-5FzhTL-2ojCo91\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn addition to the fulfillment of prophecy, Christians saw parallels between the events of the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament. These parallels, or foreshadowings, are called typology. One example would be Abraham\u2019s willingness to sacrifice his son, Isaac, and the later sacrifice of Christ on the cross.\u00a0 We often see these comparisons in Christian art offered as a revelation of God\u2019s plan for the salvation of mankind.\r\n<h3 id=\"different-christianities\">Different Christianities<\/h3>\r\nUnlike Greek and Roman religions (there was both an official \u201cstate\u201d religion as well as other cults), Christianity emphasized belief and a personal relationship with God. The doctrines, or main teachings, of Christianity were determined in a series of councils in the early Christian period, such as the Council of Nicea in 325. This resulted in a common statement of belief known as the Nicene Creed, which is still used by some churches today.\r\n\r\nNevertheless, there is great diversity in Christian belief and practice. This was true even in the early days of Christianity, when, for example, Arians (who believed that the three parts of the\u00a0Holy Trinity\u00a0were not equal) and Donatists (who held that priests who had renounced their Christian faith during periods of persecution could not administer the sacraments), were considered heretics (someone who goes against official teaching). Today there are approximately 2.2 billion Christians who belong to a multitude of sects.\r\n\r\nThe two dominant early branches of Christianity were the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, rooted in Western and Eastern Europe respectively.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-protestant-reformation\/\">Protestantism<\/a>\u00a0(and its different forms) emerged only later, at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Before that there was essentially just one church in Western Europe\u2014what we would call the Roman Catholic church today (to differentiate it from other forms of Christianity in the West such as Lutheranism, Methodism etc.). Christianity spread throughout the world. In the sixteenth century, the Jesuits (a Catholic order), sent missionaries to Asia, North and South America, and Africa often in concert with Europe\u2019s colonial expansion.\r\n<h3 id=\"doctrines\">Doctrines<\/h3>\r\nChristianity holds that God has a three-part nature\u2014that God is a trinity (God the father, the Holy Spirit, and Jesus Christ) and that it was Jesus\u2019s death on the cross\u2014his sacrifice\u2014that allowed for human beings to have the possibility of eternal life in heaven. [footnote]There are also nontrinitian Christians.[\/footnote] In Christian theology, Christ is seen as the second Adam, and Mary (Jesus\u2019s mother) is seen as the second Eve. The idea here is that where Adam and Eve caused original sin, and were expelled from paradise (the Garden of Eden), Mary and Christ made it possible for human beings to have eternal life in paradise (heaven), through Christ\u2019s sacrifice on the cross.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1761\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"621\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/MasaccioHolyTrinity.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1761\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image226.jpeg\" alt=\"A fresco painting depicting a religious scene with Jesus Christ crucified at the center, flanked by four mourners dressed in vibrant robes. The composition is framed by classical architectural elements including two large white columns and a rounded arch with red and pink tones, set above a stone tomb with an inscription.\" width=\"621\" height=\"1171\" \/><\/a> Masaccio,\u00a0<em>Holy Trinity<\/em>, c. 1427, fresco (Santa Maria Novella, Florence; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/profzucker\/30744058397\/\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nChristian practice centers on the sacrament of the Eucharist, which is sometimes referred to as Communion. Christians eat bread and drink wine to remember Christ\u2019s sacrifice for the sins of humankind. Christ himself initiated this practice at the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lives-of-christ-and-the-virgin-in-byzantine-art\/#Supper:~:text=NC%2DSA%202.0)-,The%20Last%20Supper,-The%20Last%20Supper\">Last Supper<\/a>. Catholics and Eastern Orthodox believe that the bread and wine literally transform into the body and blood of Christ, whereas Protestants and other Christians see the Eucharist as symbolic reminder and re-enactment of Christ\u2019s sacrifice.\r\n\r\nChristians demonstrate their faith by engaging in good (charitable) works (works of art\u2014like the frescoes by\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/giotto-arena-scrovegni-chapel\/\">Giotto<\/a>\u00a0in the Arena Chapel\u2014were often created as good works). They often engage in rituals (sacraments) such as partaking of the Eucharist or being baptized. Traditional Christian churches have a hierarchical structure of clergy. Devout men and women sometimes become nuns or monks and may separate themselves from the world and live a cloistered life devoted to prayer in a monastery.\r\n<h2 id=\"early-christianity-an-introduction\">Early Christianity, an introduction<\/h2>\r\n<h3 id=\"key-events\">Key events<\/h3>\r\nTwo important moments played a critical role in the development of early Christianity:\r\n\r\n1. The decision of the\u00a0Apostle Paul\u00a0to spread\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christianity-an-introduction\/\">Christianity<\/a>\u00a0beyond the Jewish communities of Palestine into the Greco-Roman world.\r\n\r\n2. When the Roman\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-christian-art-and-architecture-after-constantine\/\">Emperor Constantine<\/a>\u00a0accepted Christianity and became its patron at the beginning of the fourth century.\r\n\r\nThe creation and nature of Christian art were directly impacted by these moments.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-spread-of-christianity\">The spread of Christianity<\/h3>\r\nAs implicit in the names of his\u00a0Epistles, Paul spread Christianity to the Greek and Roman cities of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-mediterranean\/\">ancient Mediterranean world<\/a>. In cities like Ephesus, Corinth, Thessaloniki, and Rome, Paul encountered the religious and cultural experience of the Greco-Roman world. This encounter played a major role in the formation of Christianity.\r\n<h3 id=\"christianity-as-a-mystery-cult\">Christianity as a mystery cult<\/h3>\r\nChristianity in its first three centuries was one of a large number of mystery religions that flourished in the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-ancient-rome\/\">Roman world<\/a>. Religion in the Roman world was divided between the public, inclusive cults of civic religions and the secretive, exclusive mystery cults. The emphasis in the civic cults was on customary practices, especially sacrifices. Since the early history of the polis or city-state in Greek culture, the public cults played an important role in defining civic identity.\r\n\r\nAs it expanded and assimilated more people, Rome continued to use the public religious experience to define the identity of its citizens. The\u00a0polytheism\u00a0of the Romans allowed the assimilation of the gods of the people it had conquered.\r\n\r\nThus, when the Roman Emperor Hadrian created the<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-pantheon\/\">\u00a0Pantheon<\/a>\u00a0in the early second century, the building\u2019s dedication to all the gods signified the Roman ambition of bringing cosmos or order to the gods, just as new and foreign societies were brought into political order through the spread of Roman imperial authority. The order of Roman authority on earth is a reflection of the divine cosmos.\r\n\r\nFor most adherents of mystery cults, there was no contradiction in participating in both the public cults and a mystery cult. The different religious experiences appealed to different aspects of life. In contrast to the civic identity which was at the focus of the public cults, the mystery religions appealed to the participant\u2019s concerns for personal salvation. The mystery cults focused on a central mystery that would only be known by those who had become initiated into the teachings of the cult.\r\n<h3 id=\"monotheism\">Monotheism<\/h3>\r\nThese are characteristics Christianity shares with numerous other mystery cults. In early Christianity emphasis was placed on\u00a0baptism, which marked the initiation of the convert into the mysteries of the faith. The Christian emphasis on the belief in salvation and an afterlife is consistent with the other mystery cults. The\u00a0monotheism\u00a0of Christianity, though, was a crucial difference from the other cults. The refusal of the early Christians to participate in the civic cults due to their monotheistic beliefs lead to their persecution. Christians were seen as anti-social.\r\n<h2 id=\"early-christian-art\">Early Christian art<\/h2>\r\nThe beginnings of an identifiable Christian art can be traced to the end of the second century and the beginning of the third century. Considering the Old Testament prohibitions against graven images, it is important to consider why Christian art developed in the first place. The use of images will be a continuing issue in the history of Christianity. The best explanation for the emergence of Christian art in the early church is due to the important role images played in Greco-Roman culture.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1762\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"751\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/16542782897_82690a181e_o.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1762\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image227.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient underground catacomb with arched ceilings and walls adorned with faded frescoes and murals in earthy tones. The space features a central stone bench, a bricked-up niche, and detailed decorative panels.\" width=\"751\" height=\"747\" \/><\/a> Greek Chapel, late 2nd century\u20134th century C.E. (Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/rcQ61M\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAs Christianity gained converts, these new Christians had been brought up on the value of images in their previous cultural experience and they wanted to continue this in their Christian experience. For example, there was a change in burial practices in the Roman world away from cremation to inhumation. Outside the city walls of Rome, adjacent to major roads,\u00a0catacombs\u00a0were dug into the ground to bury the dead. Families would have chambers or\u00a0<em>cubicula<\/em>\u00a0dug to bury their members. Wealthy Romans would also have sarcophagi or marble tombs carved for their burial. The Christian converts wanted the same things. Christian catacombs were dug frequently adjacent to non-Christian ones, and sarcophagi with Christian imagery were apparently popular with the richer Christians.\r\n\r\n<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/sarcophagus-of-junius-bassus\/\">Junius Bassus<\/a>, a Roman praefectus urbi or high ranking government administrator, died in 359 C.E. Scholars believe that he converted to Christianity shortly before his death accounting for the inclusion of Christ and scenes from the Bible.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1763\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1430\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/1-Full.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1763\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of an ancient Roman sarcophagus featuring detailed relief sculptures arranged in two horizontal registers. The upper register shows a series of standing figures in togas engaged in various interactions, while the lower register depicts scenes with both standing and seated figures, including a central figure on horseback, all framed by ornate columns and arches.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"1034\" \/><\/a> Plaster cast copy of\u00a0<em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/em>, original is 359 C.E., marble (Treasury, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/profzucker\/4061884878\/\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"themes-of-death-and-resurrection\">Themes of death and resurrection<\/h3>\r\nA striking aspect of the Christian art of the third century is the absence of the imagery that will dominate later Christian art. We do not find in this early period images of the Nativity, Crucifixion, or Resurrection of Christ, for example. This absence of direct images of the life of Christ is best explained by the status of Christianity as a mystery religion. The story of the Crucifixion and Resurrection would be part of the secrets of the cult.\r\n\r\nWhile not directly representing these central Christian images, the theme of death and resurrection was represented through a series of images, many of which were derived from the Old Testament that echoed the themes. For example, the story of Jonah\u2014being swallowed by a great fish and then after spending three days and three nights in the belly of the beast is vomited out on dry ground\u2014was seen by early Christians as an anticipation or prefiguration of the story of Christ\u2019s own death and resurrection. Images of Jonah, along with those of Daniel in the Lion\u2019s Den, the Three Hebrews in the Firey Furnace, Moses Striking the Rock, among others, are widely popular in the Christian art of the third century, both in paintings and on sarcophagi.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1764\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1429\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/30724112054_6a9cc43de6_4k-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1764\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image229.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed marble relief sculpture depicting a muscular, reclining male figure with curly hair, seemingly in a struggle with a serpent-like creature. The scene includes intricate carvings of draped figures and ornamental elements, highlighting dynamic movement and classical artistic style.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"804\" \/><\/a> Jonah in the pose of Endymion\u00a0(detail), <em>Santa Maria Antiqua Sarcophagus<\/em>, c. 275 C.E., white veined marble (Santa Maria Antiqua, Rome; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/NNZ76U\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAll of these can be seen to allegorically allude to the principal narratives of the life of Christ. The common subject of salvation echoes the major emphasis in the mystery religions on personal salvation. The appearance of these subjects frequently adjacent to each other in the catacombs and sarcophagi can be read as a visual litany: save me Lord as you have saved Jonah from the belly of the great fish, save me Lord as you have saved the Hebrews in the desert, save me Lord as you have saved Daniel in the Lion\u2019s den, etc.\r\n\r\nOne can imagine that early Christians\u2014who were rallying around the nascent religious authority of the Church against the regular threats of persecution by imperial authority\u2014would find great meaning in the story of Moses of striking the rock to provide water for the Israelites fleeing the authority of the Pharaoh on their exodus to the Promised Land.\r\n<h3 id=\"christianitys-canonical-texts-and-the-new-testament\">Christianity\u2019s canonical texts and the New Testament<\/h3>\r\nOne of the major differences between Christianity and the public cults was the central role faith plays in Christianity and the importance of orthodox beliefs. The history of the early Church is marked by the struggle to establish a canonical set of texts and the establishment of orthodox doctrine.\r\n\r\nQuestions about the nature of the Trinity and Christ would continue to challenge religious authority. Within the civic cults there were no central texts and there were no orthodox doctrinal positions. The emphasis was on maintaining customary traditions. One accepted the existence of the gods, but there was no emphasis on belief in the gods.\r\n\r\nThe Christian emphasis on orthodox doctrine has its closest parallels in the Greek and Roman world to the role of philosophy. Schools of philosophy centered around the teachings or doctrines of a particular teacher. The schools of philosophy proposed specific conceptions of reality. Ancient philosophy was influential in the formation of Christian theology. For example, the opening of the Gospel of John: \u201cIn the beginning was the word and the word was with God\u2026,\u201d is unmistakably based on the idea of the \u201clogos\u201d going back to the philosophy of Heraclitus. Christian apologists like Justin Martyr writing in the second century understood Christ as the Logos or the Word of God who served as an intermediary between God and the World.\r\n<h3 id=\"early-representations-of-christ-and-the-apostles\">Early representations of Christ and the apostles<\/h3>\r\nAn early representation of Christ found in the Catacomb of Domitilla shows the figure of Christ flanked by a group of his disciples or students. Those experienced with later Christian imagery might mistake this for an image of the Last Supper, but instead this image does not tell any story. It conveys rather the idea that Christ is the true teacher.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1765\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1200\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/domitil1.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1765\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image230.jpeg\" alt=\"A fresco painting depicting a group of seated figures in ancient attire, arranged in a semi-circular composition under an arched ceiling. The artwork features earthy tones of red, brown, and beige, highlighting a communal or ceremonial scene.\" width=\"1200\" height=\"670\" \/><\/a> <em>Christ and the Apostles<\/em>, Catacombs of Domitilla, 4th century C.E., Rome (Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Christ_teacher.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nChrist draped in classical garb holds a scroll in his left hand while his right hand is outstretched in the so-called\u00a0<em>ad locutio<\/em>\u00a0gesture, or the gesture of the orator. The dress, scroll, and gesture all establish the authority of Christ, who is placed in the center of his disciples. Christ is thus treated like the philosopher surrounded by his students or disciples.\r\n\r\nComparably, an early representation of the apostle Paul, identifiable with his characteristic pointed beard and high forehead, is based on the convention of the philosopher, as exemplified by a Roman copy of a late fourth century B.C.E. portrait of the fifth century B.C.E. playwright Sophocles.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1766\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1403\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/paul.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1766\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image231.jpeg\" alt=\"A side-by-side comparison of an ancient fresco and a marble statue, both depicting a robed male figure standing next to a cylindrical object. The fresco uses earthy tones with visible brush strokes, while the statue features detailed drapery and a bearded face, highlighting artistic styles and preservation differences from antiquity.\" width=\"1403\" height=\"1146\" \/><\/a> Left:\u00a0<em>Saint Paul,<\/em> late 2nd century\u20134th century C.E., wall painting (Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Paul_philosopher.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>); and right:\u00a0<em>Sophocles<\/em>, 1st century C.E. Roman copy of a Greek bronze, marble (Vatican Museums, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/md1vzn\">Egisto Sani<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"catacomb-of-priscilla-rome\">Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome<\/h2>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=z_5AAk1jABI\r\n<h2 id=\"the-good-shepherd-in-early-christianity\">The Good Shepherd in Early Christianity<\/h2>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=pBFwGYrfyXU\r\n<h2 id=\"early-christian-art-and-architecture-after-constantine\">Early Christian art and architecture after Constantine<\/h2>\r\nBy the beginning of the 4th century Christianity was a growing mystery religion in the cities of the Roman world. It was attracting converts from different social levels. Christian theology and art was enriched through the cultural interaction with the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-ancient-rome\/\">Greco-Roman world<\/a>. But Christianity would be radically transformed through the actions of a single man.\r\n<h3 id=\"rome-becomes-christian-and-constantine-builds-churches\">Rome becomes Christian and\u00a0Constantine builds churches<\/h3>\r\nIn 312, the Emperor Constantine defeated his principal rival Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. Accounts of the battle describe how Constantine saw a sign in the heavens portending his victory. Eusebius, Constantine\u2019s principal biographer, describes the sign as the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Chi-Rho.png\">Chi Rho<\/a>, the first two letters in the Greek spelling of the name Christos.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1767\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/07\/ConstantinePiecesMed.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1767\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image232.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of ancient marble sculptures displayed against a beige wall, featuring a large head bust on a pedestal, a detached arm, a hand with an extended index finger, and a smaller rounded fragment. The sculptures are arranged on a cobblestone ground between stone columns, highlighting classical Roman art and architectural elements.\" width=\"870\" height=\"522\" \/><\/a> The Colossus of Constantine, c. 312\u2013315 C.E., marble (Palazzo dei Conservatori, Musei Capitolini, Rome; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/dvXsPj\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAfter that victory Constantine became the principal patron of Christianity. In 313 he issued the Edict of Milan which granted religious toleration. Although Christianity would not become the official religion of Rome until the end of the 4th century, Constantine\u2019s imperial sanction of Christianity transformed its status and nature. Neither imperial Rome or Christianity would be the same after this moment. Rome would become Christian, and Christianity would take on the aura of imperial Rome.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1768\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"790\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Dura-Europos.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1768\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image233.jpeg\" alt=\"Isometric architectural drawing of Dura Europos Christian Church, showing detailed interior layout with labeled sections including baptistry, assembly room, baptistery, and various features like a well, benches, and frescoes. Walls are depicted with brick patterns, and key elements are numbered with a legend explaining each part, highlighting the church's structure and religious functions.\" width=\"790\" height=\"992\" \/><\/a> Isometric rendering of the Christian building at Dura-Europos (c. 240 C.E.), by Henry Pearson, 1932\u201334 (<a href=\"http:\/\/media.artgallery.yale.edu\/duraeuropos\/dura.html\">Yale University Art Gallery<\/a>, New Haven)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe transformation of Christianity is dramatically evident in a comparison between the architecture of the pre-Constantinian church and that of the Constantinian and post-Constantinian church. During the pre-Constantinian period, there was not much that distinguished the Christian churches from typical domestic architecture. A striking example of this is presented by a Christian community house, from the Syrian town of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/dura-europos\/\">Dura-Europos<\/a>. Here a typical home has been adapted to the needs of the congregation. A wall was taken down to combine two rooms: this was undoubtedly the room for services. It is significant that the most elaborate aspect of the house is the room designed as a baptistry. This reflects the importance of the sacrament of Baptism to initiate new members into the mysteries of the faith. Otherwise this building would not stand out from the other houses. This domestic architecture obviously would not meet the needs of Constantine\u2019s architects.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1769\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"509\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/ag-obj-34499-0004-pub-copy.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1769\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image234.jpeg\" alt=\"Fragment of an ancient wall painting depicting a boat with several figures on board and two standing figures on land. The artwork uses muted earth tones with horizontal bands at the bottom, suggesting a scene related to the Sacrament of Baptism.\" width=\"509\" height=\"653\" \/><\/a> Baptistery wall painting: <em>Christ Walking on Water<\/em>, 232 C.E., paint on plaster, found in Dura-Europos, Syria (<a href=\"https:\/\/artgallery.yale.edu\/collections\/objects\/34499\">Yale University Art Gallery<\/a>, New Haven, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a> in the United States)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nEmperors for centuries had been responsible for the construction of temples throughout the Roman Empire. We have already observed the role of the public cults in defining one\u2019s civic identity, and Emperors understood the construction of temples as testament to their\u00a0<em>pietas<\/em>, or respect for the customary religious practices and traditions. Therefore, it was natural for Constantine to want to construct edifices in honor of Christianity. He built churches in Rome, including the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/st-peters-basilica\/\">Church of St. Peter<\/a>, he built churches in the Holy Land, most notably the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem and the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, and he built churches in his newly-constructed capital of Constantinople.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-basilica\">The basilica<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1770\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1280\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/De_sacris_aedificiis_a_Costantino_Magno_constructis_synopsis_historica_pag._33_Tab._VIII.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1770\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image235.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed architectural drawing of a large, rectangular hall with a high pitched roof supported by wooden beams and columns. The perspective view highlights symmetrical rows of arches and pillars along both sides, with a tiled floor and an open central nave.\" width=\"1280\" height=\"886\" \/><\/a> Old St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Rome, Giovanni Ciampini,\u00a0De sacris aedificiis a Constantino Magno constructis: synopsis historica, 1693, p. 33 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:De_sacris_aedificiis_a_Costantino_Magno_constructis_synopsis_historica_pag._33_Tab._VIII.jpg\">Gryffindor<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn creating these churches, Constantine and his architects confronted a major challenge: what should be the physical form of the church? Clearly the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/roman-architecture\/\">traditional form of the Roman temple<\/a>\u00a0would be inappropriate both from associations with pagan cults but also from the difference in function. Temples served as treasuries and dwellings for the cult; sacrifices occurred on outdoor altars with the temple as a backdrop. This meant that Roman temple architecture was largely an architecture of the exterior. Since Christianity was a mystery religion that demanded initiation to participate in religious practices, Christian architecture put greater emphasis on the interior. The Christian churches needed large interior spaces to house the growing congregations and to mark the clear separation of the faithful from the unfaithful. At the same time, the new Christian churches needed to be visually meaningful. The buildings needed to convey the new authority of Christianity. These factors were instrumental in the formulation during the Constantinian period of an architectural form that would become the core of Christian architecture to our own time: the Christian Basilica.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1771\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1011\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/DCCpABWWAAAS9K5.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1771\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image236.jpeg\" alt=\"Reconstruction of the interior of the Basilica Ulpia, Roman basilica interior featuring two tiers of white columns with ornate capitals supporting a coffered wooden ceiling. The spacious hall has a checkered marble floor with small groups of people scattered throughout, highlighting architectural grandeur and social gathering function.\" width=\"1011\" height=\"679\" \/><\/a> Reconstruction of the interior of the Basilica Ulpia, Rome (image:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.romanoimpero.com\/2010\/10\/basilica-ulpia.html\">Gilbert Gorski<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe basilica was not a new architectural form. The Romans had been building basilicas in their cities and as part of palace complexes for centuries. A particularly lavish one was the so-called Basilica Ulpia constructed as part of the<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/forum-and-markets-of-trajan\/\">\u00a0Forum of the Emperor Trajan<\/a>\u00a0in the early 2nd century. Basilicas had diverse functions but essentially they served as formal public meeting places. One of the major functions of the basilicas was as a site for law courts. These were housed in an architectural form known as the\u00a0apse. In the Basilica Ulpia, these semi-circular forms project from either end of the building, but in some cases, the apses would project off of the length of the building. The magistrate who served as the representative of the authority of the Emperor would sit in a formal throne in the apse and issue his judgments. This function gave an aura of political authority to the basilicas. Basilicas also served as audience halls as a part of imperial palaces, such as the basilica at Trier built by Constantine as part of a palace complex in Trier, which served as his northern capital. Either way, the association between basilicas and the emperor was clear.\r\n<h3 id=\"christian-use-of-the-roman-basilica\">Christian use of the Roman basilica<\/h3>\r\nNot long after his conversion and subsequent legalization of Christianity, Constantine began an extensive building campaign to support his new state religion in major cities such as Rome, Jerusalem, and Constantinople. In looking for a structure to address the spatial needs of the developing Christian liturgy (such as increasing congregation size and more elaborate processions), he adapted the Roman basilica, which until that point had been used exclusively as a civic building, like the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/basilica-of-maxentius-and-constantine\/\">Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine<\/a>.\r\n\r\nRoman basilicas were long rectangular buildings, often with a central nave (a wide, center aisle)\u00a0and two side aisles. There was at least one semicircular apse, often at one end of the building, in which the magistrates sat and heard their cases. The basilica was in many ways the perfect building to adapt into a church because it did not have the pagan associations that Roman temples did and was large enough to accommodate the growing Christian population.\r\n\r\nEarly Christian basilicas such as\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/santa-sabina\/\">Santa Sabina<\/a>\u00a0and San Paolo fuori le Mura (Saint Paul\u2019s Outside the Walls) maintained the basic structure of the Roman basilica, but distinctly Christian elements were added. The bema was retained from the synagogue and continued to be used as the raised platform from which priests preached (by the late Middle Ages this was often attached to a pillar to one side of the central aisle of the nave). Many churches added the ambo, an even higher platform, accessed by stairs, from which the Gospel was read and sermons were preached\u2014in which case the bema was reserved for the recitation of prayers and the reading of the Epistles or Old Testament. Another distinctly Christian architectural element was the transept, which was added near the apse-end of the building to form a cross-shape and provide additional space.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1772\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/16564087789_a134b57e6d_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1772\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image237.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a large, historic basilica interior featuring two rows of tall, ornate columns with arches supporting high walls and a coffered ceiling. The far end displays a semicircular apse with religious frescoes above arched windows, and a few people stand on the marble floor, emphasizing the vast, open space.\" width=\"870\" height=\"634\" \/><\/a> View down the nave towards the apse with altar, Basilica of Santa Sabina, c. 432 C.E., Rome (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/reHhdv\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nMost significant among the Christian additions to the basilica, and the central focus for the liturgy, was the altar upon which the eucharist was celebrated. Altars were located either right in front of or just inside of the apse (as in Santa Sabina)\u2014that is, within the Christian equivalent of the Jewish Holy of Holies. Up until the Middle Ages, most altars were wooden table-like structures; they then transitioned into stone. In the early 5th century, the Church formally required the installation of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/pilgrimage-routes-and-the-cult-of-the-relic\/\">saints\u2019 relics<\/a>\u00a0(often bone fragments) in altars. This practice was based in part on the tradition of placing altars on top of martyrs\u2019 tombs (like at\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/st-peters-basilica\/\">Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica<\/a>\u00a0in Rome) and the text of Revelation 6:9-10, which describes martyrs crying out for justice from under the altar in heaven. The three main areas of the church came to be ascribed with symbolic meaning: the narthex, or entry, was the world; the nave, or main hall, was the Kingdom of God; and the sanctuary, or altar area\u2014like the Holy of Holies\u2014was heaven.\r\n<h2 id=\"old-st.-peters-basilica\">Old St. Peter\u2019s Basilica<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1773\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1280\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1773\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image238.jpeg\" alt=\"Black and white architectural drawing depicting Old Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome around the year 1475, showcasing detailed structures including domes, towers, and colonnades. The illustration highlights the basilica's layout withsurrounding buildings, emphasizing historical design and spatial organization.\" width=\"1280\" height=\"849\" \/> H.W. Brewer,\u00a0Drawing of Old Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica as it appeared between 1475 and 1483, 1891[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOld St Peter\u2019s Basilica was erected by Constantine in the 4th century. During the ancient Roman era, the site was Nero\u2019s Circus, a place where games and sporting events were performed. This was a place where Nero himself apparently rode a chariot. It was also a place where there was an ancient necropolis \u2014 burial ground \u2014 and by tradition, the place where Saint Peter himself was crucified and then buried.\r\n\r\nThe site is a very holy one\u2014it is (according to the Catholic Church) the site of the burial of\u00a0Saint Peter.\u00a0Saint Peter is considered one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ and a leader of the early Church. Because of this, he is traditionally thought of as the first bishop of Rome, or Pope, given that job by Christ himself. The early Christians created a monument on the site, which was quite small and humble.\r\n\r\nIt is on this site that Constantine ordered the building of a basilica. The basilica, with its long axis that focuses attention on the altar, is the most popular type of church plan because of its practicality and ability to hold many worshippers. The architectural design of Old St. Peter\u2019s Basilica utilized the common features of an early Christian basilica: nave, aisle, apse, altar, and transept.\r\n\r\nThe original church, Constantine\u2019s Saint Peter\u2019s, lasted for a little more than a thousand years. By the time of the Renaissance, Old St. Peter\u2019s was in disrepair, and a massive rebuilding project began under Pope Juilius II. The resulting project becomes New St. Peter\u2019s Basilica.\r\n<h2 id=\"sarcophagus-of-junius-bassus\">Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/h2>\r\nMade for a member of the Roman elite, this early tomb features Old and New Testament scenes in a classical style.\r\n<h3 id=\"christianity-becomes-legal\">Christianity becomes legal<\/h3>\r\nBy the middle of the fourth century\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christianity-an-introduction\/\">Christianity<\/a>\u00a0had undergone a dramatic transformation. Before\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-christianity-an-introduction\/\">Emperor Constantine\u2019s acceptance<\/a>, Christianity had a marginal status in the Roman world. Attracting converts in the urban populations, Christianity appealed to the faithful\u2019s desires for personal salvation; however, due to Christianity\u2019s\u00a0monotheism\u00a0(which prohibited its followers from participating in the public cults), Christians suffered periodic episodes of persecution. By the middle of the fourth century, Christianity under imperial patronage had become a part of the establishment. The elite of Roman society were becoming new converts.\r\n\r\nSuch an individual was Junius Bassus. He was a member of a senatorial family. His father had held the position of\u00a0<em>Praetorian<\/em>\u00a0prefect, which involved administration of the Western Empire. Junius Bassus held the position of\u00a0<em>praefectus urbi<\/em>\u00a0(\u201curban prefect\u201d) for Rome, an office established in the early period under the kings, and was responsible for the administration of the city of Rome. It was a position held by members of the most elite families. When Junius Bassus died at the age of 42 in the year 359, a\u00a0sarcophagus\u00a0was made for him. As recorded in an inscription on the sarcophagus now in the Vatican collection, Junius Bassus had become a convert to Christianity shortly before his death.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1763\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1430\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/1-Full.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1763\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of an ancient Roman sarcophagus featuring detailed relief sculptures arranged in two horizontal registers. The upper register shows a series of standing figures in togas engaged in various interactions, while the lower register depicts scenes with both standing and seated figures, including a central figure on horseback, all framed by ornate columns and arches.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"1034\" \/><\/a> Plaster cast copy of\u00a0<em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/em>, original is 359 C.E., marble (Treasury, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City, photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/7bWdRU\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"the-birth-of-christian-symbolism-in-art\">The birth of Christian symbolism in art<\/h3>\r\nThe style and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-iconographic-analysis\/\">iconography<\/a>\u00a0of this sarcophagus reflects the transformed status of Christianity. This is most evident in the image at the center of the upper register. Before the time of Constantine, the figure of Christ was rarely directly represented, but here on the Junius Bassus sarcophagus we see Christ prominently represented not in a narrative representation from the New Testament but in a formula derived from Roman Imperial art. The\u00a0<em>traditio legis<\/em>\u00a0(\u201cgiving of the law\u201d) was a formula in Roman art to give visual testament to the emperor as the sole source of the law.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1774\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1153\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Christ-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1774\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image239.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed photograph of an ancient Roman marble relief sculpture depicting two robed figures standing behind a seated central figure, who is elevated on a platform supported by a muscular figure beneath. The relief features ornate columns on either side, Latin inscriptions above, and intricate carvings of animals and decorative elements along the base.\" width=\"1153\" height=\"1374\" \/><\/a> Giving of the law (tradition legis) (detail),\u00a0<em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/em>, 359 C.E., marble (Treasury, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2mXiE9g\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAlready at this early period, artists had articulated identifiable formulas for representing\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/whos-who-how-to-recognize-saints\/\">Saints Peter and Paul<\/a>. Peter was represented with a bowl haircut and a short cropped beard, while the figure of Paul was represented with a pointed beard and usually a high forehead. In paintings, Peter has white hair and Paul\u2019s hair is black. The early establishment of these formulas was undoubtedly a product of the doctrine of apostolic authority in the early church. Bishops claimed that their authority could be traced back to the original Twelve Apostles.\r\n\r\nPeter and Paul held the status as the principal apostles. The Bishops of Rome have understood themselves in a direct succession back to Saint Peter, the founder of the church in Rome and its first bishop. The popularity of the formula of the\u00a0<em>traditio legis<\/em>\u00a0in Christian art in the fourth century was due to the importance of establishing orthodox Christian doctrine.\r\n\r\nIn contrast to the established formulas for representing Saints Peter and Paul, early Christian art reveals two competing conceptions of Christ. The youthful, beardless Christ, based on representation of Apollo, vied for dominance with the long-haired and bearded Christ, based on representations of Jupiter or Zeus.\r\n\r\nThe feet of Christ in the Junius Bassus relief rest on the head of a bearded, muscular figure, who holds a billowing veil spread over his head. This is another formula derived from Roman art. A comparable figure appears at the top of the cuirass of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/augustus-of-primaporta\/\">Augustus of Primaporta<\/a>. The figure can be identified as the figure of Caelus, or the heavens. In the context of the Augustan statue, the figure of Caelus signifies Roman authority and its rule of everything earthly, that is, under the heavens. In the Junius Bassus relief, Caelus\u2019s position under Christ\u2019s feet signifies that Christ is the ruler of heaven.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1775\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1429\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/horse-combo-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1775\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image240.jpeg\" alt=\"Two photographs of ancient marble relief sculptures depict historical scenes. The left relief shows a figure riding a donkey under an arch with detailed foliage and columns, while the right relief features multiple figures, including soldiers and a horse, engaged in a dynamic interaction with trees and draped cloth in the background.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"829\" \/><\/a> Left: Christ\u2019s entry into Jerusalem (detail), plaster copy of\u00a0<em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/em>, original is 359 C.E., marble (Treasury, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:1057_-_Roma,_Museo_d._civilt%C3%A0_Romana_-_Calco_sarcofago_Giunio_Basso_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto,_12-Apr-2008.jpg\">Giovanni Dall\u2019Orto<\/a>); right:\u00a0Adventus of Marcus Aurelius, 176\u201380 C.E., marble (Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_his_clemence_to_barbarii.jpg\">MatthiasKabel<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe lower register directly underneath depicts\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christ-virgin-byzantine-art\/#Entry:~:text=Praefcke%2C%20CC0)-,The%20Entry%20into%20Jerusalem,-The%20Entry%20into\">Christ\u2019s Entry into Jerusalem<\/a>. This image was also based on a formula derived from Roman imperial art. The\u00a0<em>adventus<\/em>\u00a0was a formula devised to show the triumphal arrival of the emperor with figures offering homage. A relief from the reign of Marcus Aurelius illustrates this formula. In including the Entry into Jerusalem, the designer of the Junius Bassus sarcophagus did not just use this to represent the New Testament story, but with the\u00a0<em>adventus<\/em>\u00a0iconography, this image signifies Christ\u2019s triumphal entry into Jerusalem. Whereas the\u00a0<em>traditio legis<\/em>\u00a0above conveys Christ\u2019s heavenly authority, it is likely that the Entry into Jerusalem in the form of the\u00a0<em>adventus<\/em>\u00a0was intended to signify Christ\u2019s earthly authority. The juxtaposition of the Christ in Majesty and the Entry into Jerusalem suggests that the planner of the sarcophagus had an intentional program in mind.\r\n<h3 id=\"old-and-new-together\">Old and new together<\/h3>\r\nWe can determine some intentionality in the inclusion of the Old and New Testament scenes. For example the image of Adam and Eve shown covering their nudity after the Fall was intended to refer to the doctrine of Original Sin that necessitated Christ\u2019s entry into the world to redeem humanity through His death and resurrection. Humanity is thus in need of salvation from this world.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1776\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1395\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Adam-and-Eve-adj.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1776\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image241.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed photograph of an ancient Roman marble relief sculpture depicting Adam and Eve in nude on either side of a tree wrapped with a serpent. The figures are flanked by two ornate columns.\" width=\"1395\" height=\"1145\" \/><\/a> Adam and Eve (detail), plaster copy of\u00a0<em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/em>, original is 359 C.E., marble (Treasury, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/7bW4CA\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe inclusion of the suffering of Job on the left hand side of the lower register conveyed the meaning how even the righteous must suffer the discomforts and pains of this life. Job is saved only by his unbroken faith in God.\r\n\r\nThe scene of Daniel in the lion\u2019s den to the right of the Entry into Jerusalem had been popular in earlier Christian art as another example of how salvation is achieved through faith in God.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1777\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"650\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Sacrifice-of-Isaac-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1777\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image242.jpeg\" alt=\"Marble relief sculpture depicting two robed male figures standing between two fluted columns with Corinthian capitals, accompanied by animals and a kneeling child. Latin inscription runs along top edge, highlighting Roman artistic and cultural themes.\" width=\"650\" height=\"785\" \/><\/a> Sacrifice of Isaac (detail),\u00a0<em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/em>, 359 C.E., marble (Treasury, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2mXiDWh\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nSalvation is a message in the relief of Abraham\u2019s sacrifice of Isaac on the left hand side of the upper register. God challenged Abraham\u2019s faith by commanding Abraham to sacrifice his only son Isaac. At the moment when Abraham is about to carry out the sacrifice his hand is stayed by an angel. Isaac is thus saved. It is likely that the inclusion of this scene in the context of the rest of the sarcophagus had another meaning as well. The story of the father\u2019s sacrifice of his only son was understood to refer to God\u2019s sacrifice of his son, Christ, on the Cross. Early Christian theologians attempting to integrate the Old and New Testaments saw in Old Testament stories prefigurations or precursors of New Testament stories. Throughout Christian art the popularity of Abraham\u2019s Sacrifice of Isaac is explained by its typological reference to the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christ-virgin-byzantine-art\/#Crucifixion:~:text=Catherine%2C%20Sinai%2C%20Egypt)-,The%20Crucifixion,-The%20Crucifixion%20depicts\">Crucifixion of Christ<\/a>.\r\n<h3 id=\"martyrdom\">Martyrdom<\/h3>\r\nWhile not showing directly the Crucifixion of Christ, the inclusion of the Judgment of Pilate in two compartments on the right hand side of the upper register is an early appearance in Christian art of a scene drawn from Christ\u2019s Passion. The scene is based on the formula in Roman art of Justitia, illustrated here by a panel made for Marcus Aurelius. Here the emperor is shown seated on the\u00a0<em>sella curulis<\/em>\u00a0dispensing justice to a barbarian figure. On the sarcophagus, Pilate is shown seated also on a\u00a0<em>sella curulis<\/em>. The position of Pontius Pilate as the Roman prefect or governor of Judaea undoubtedly carried special meaning for Junius Bassus in his role as\u00a0<em>praefectus urbi<\/em>\u00a0in Rome. Junius Bassus as a senior magistrate would also be entitled to sit on a\u00a0<em>sella curulis<\/em>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1778\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1430\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/51820389712_56dcdc06bc_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1778\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image243.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of an ancient marble relief sculpture depicting a group of robed figures engaged in a scene, framed by intricately carved columns and architectural elements. The relief features detailed drapery, a seated figure holding a scroll, and Latin inscriptions along the top edge, highlighting classical artistic style and historical context.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"1130\" \/><\/a> Judgement of Pilate (detail),\u00a0<em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/em>, 359 C.E., marble (Treasury, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2mXc3t3\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nJust as Christ was judged by Roman authority, Saints Peter and Paul were martyred under Roman rule. The remaining two scenes on the sarcophagus represent Saints Peter and Paul being led to their martyrdoms. Peter and Paul as the principal apostles of Christ are again given prominence. Their martyrdoms witness Christ\u2019s own death. The artists seem to be making this point by the visual pairing of the scene of Saint Peter being led to his martyrdom and the figure of Christ before Pilate. In both scenes the principal figure is flanked by two other figures.\r\n\r\nThe importance of Peter and Paul in Rome is made apparent in that two of the major churches that Constantine constructed in Rome were the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/st-peters-basilica\/\">Church of Saint Peter<\/a>\u00a0and the Church of Saint Paul Outside the Walls. The site of the Church of Saint Peter has long believed to be the place of Saint Peter\u2019s burial. The basilica was constructed in an ancient cemetery. Although we can not be certain the the Junius Bassus Sarcophagus was originally intended for this site, it would make sense that a prominent Roman Christian like Junius Bassus would want to be buried in close physical proximity to the burial spot of the founder of the Church of Rome.\r\n<h3 id=\"competing-styles\">Competing styles<\/h3>\r\nAt either end of the Junius Bassus sarcophagus appear\u00a0Erotes\u00a0harvesting grapes and wheat. A panel with the same subject was probably a part of a pagan sarcophagus made for a child. This iconography is based on images of the seasons in Roman art. Again, the artists have taken conventions from Greek and Roman art and converted it into a Christian context. The wheat and grapes of the classical motif would be understood in the Christian context as a reference to the bread and wine of the\u00a0Eucharist.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1779\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1430\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/1065_-_Roma_Museo_d._civilta%CC%80_Romana_-_Calco_sarcofago_Giunio_Basso_-_Foto_Giovanni_DallOrto_12-Apr-2008-copy.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1779\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image244.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of a detailed stone relief sculpture depicting cherubic figures harvesting grapes and interacting with animals. The relief features intricate vine and grape motifs, with cherubs in dynamic poses, highlighting themes of abundance and pastoral life. \" width=\"1430\" height=\"950\" \/><\/a> Erotes harvesting grapes (detail), plaster copy of\u00a0<em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus,<\/em> original is 359 C.E., marble (Treasury, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:1065_-_Roma,_Museo_d._civilt%C3%A0_Romana_-_Calco_sarcofago_Giunio_Basso_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto,_12-Apr-2008.jpg\">Giovanni Dall\u2019Orto<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1780\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1429\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Getty-image-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1780\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image245.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed photograph of an ancient stone relief depicting multiple cherubic figures engaged in harvesting and gathering fruit. The relief features intricate carvings of trees, baskets, and floral motifs, highlighting a scene of abundance and communal activity.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"564\" \/><\/a> Erotes harvesting grapes (detail),\u00a0Sarcophagus representing a Dionysiac Vintage Festival, 290\u2013300 C.E., marble (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.getty.edu\/art\/collection\/object\/109CTJ\">Getty, Los Angeles<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWhile the\u00a0proportions are far from the standards of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/classic-classical-and-classicism-explained-2\/\">classical art<\/a>, the style of the relief, especially with the rich folds of drapery and soft facial features, can be seen as classic or alluding to the classical style. Comparably the division of the relief into different registers and further subdivided by an architectural framework alludes to the orderly disposition of classical art. This choice of a style that alludes to classical art was undoubtedly intentional. The art of the period is marked by a number of competing styles. Just as\u00a0rhetoricians\u00a0were taught at this period to adjust their oratorical style to the intended audience, the choice of the classical style was seen as an indication of the high social status of the patron, Junius Bassus. In a similar way, the representation of the figures in togas was intentional. In Roman art, the toga was traditionally used as a symbol of high social status.\r\n\r\nIn both its style and iconography, the Junius Bassus Sarcophagus witnesses the adoption of the tradition of Greek and Roman art by Christian artists. Works like this were appealing to patrons like Junius Bassus who were a part of the upper level of Roman society. Christian art did not reject the classical tradition: rather, the classical tradition will be a reoccurring element in Christian art throughout the Middle Ages.\r\n<h2 id=\"the-mausoleum-of-galla-placidia-ravenna\">The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna<\/h2>\r\nAn unassuming brick exterior belies the luminous early medieval mosaics within this mausoleum located in the city of Ravenna, which was once the capital of the Western Roman Empire.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=PdOkCBON9oE\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1759\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2560\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/07\/StandardScenes.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1759\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-scaled.jpeg\" alt=\"Mosaic artwork depicting a central Christ with a halo holding a cross staff, surrounded by six white sheep in a pastoral setting with plants and rocks. The scene uses gold, blue, and earth tones, framed by a decorative arch with intricate patterns and symbols.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1534\" \/><\/a> <em>The Good Shepherd<\/em>, The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, 425 C.E., mosaic, Ravenna, Italy (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/e8FGkW\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a> )[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\n<em>Christ as the Good Shepherd<\/em> from the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia features the <strong>figurative form<\/strong> of Jesus Christ seated on a natural rock throne surrounded by six sheep. Dressed in the Roman imperial <strong>colors<\/strong> of gold and purple, his body twists to gently touch the underside of a sheep\u2019s chin. He is set in a <strong>naturalistic<\/strong> <strong>pictorial space<\/strong> featuring rocks and greenery. By this point in time, Christianity is the official religion of the Roman Empire. As such, no camouflaged or hidden symbolism is needed as in the Catacomb of Priscilla. His head is surrounded by a golden halo while he holds a cross. Unlike later representations of Christ, he is youthful and beardless. Artists here blended Roman imperial <strong>iconography<\/strong> (colors, halo) with emerging Christian <strong>iconography<\/strong> (sheep, cross). The entire piece is a mosaic made of tesserae, which means this <strong>two-dimensional<\/strong> artwork has a literal <strong>texture<\/strong> to it of rough stone and glass. The artists used <strong>shading<\/strong> with highlights and shadows on the organic <strong>forms<\/strong>, including the sheep and the rocks, to create the illusion of three-dimensional space on the two-dimensional surface. Because gold leaf is baked into some of the glass tesserae, when <strong>light<\/strong> hits the mosaic, it would glimmer and reflect. The piece thus contains the <strong>illusion of light<\/strong> and the actual presence of it. Both <strong>curvilinear<\/strong> and <strong>rectilinear lines<\/strong> are used to create the <strong>contour lines<\/strong> for the forms of figures and natural elements. <strong>Implied lines<\/strong> from the sheep lead the viewer\u2019s eye directly to Christ, who is seated at the center of the <strong>composition<\/strong>. Using light and shadow, overlapping, and variations in spatial proportions, the artists achieved a convincing sense of three-dimensional <strong>space<\/strong>.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-10\">Conclusion<\/h2>\r\nThe development of early Christian art was rooted in the Classical world of Ancient Greece and Rome. As Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire under the Emperor Theodosius, Christian art and architecture became increasingly associated with imperial iconography. Even the image of Christ transformed. The earliest representations of Christ, such as the <em>Good Shepherd<\/em> statues and catacomb paintings with their Roman-inspired design, gave way to an imperial-looking Christ with clear symbolism of power and authority. Already by the 5<sup>th<\/sup> century C.E., <em>Christ as the Good Shepherd<\/em> mosaic in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia began to show changing ideas of Christ\u2019s representation. The iconography of Christian imagery will develop in distinct styles divided between East and West. As the Western Roman Empire falls in 476 C.E., Western Europe enters the Middle Ages.\r\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-10\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\r\nThe following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and are licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Conclusion<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris, Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Nancy Ross, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christianity-an-introduction\/\">Christianity, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Allen Farber, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-christianity-an-introduction\/\">Early Christianity, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Allen Farber, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-christian-art\/\">Early Christian art<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/catacomb-of-priscilla-rome\/\">Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 16, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-good-shepherd-in-early-christianity\/\">The Good Shepherd in Early Christianity<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, July 29, 2020.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Allen Farber, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-christian-art-and-architecture-after-constantine\/\">Early Christian art and architecture after Constantine<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Jennifer Awes Freeman, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/architecture-and-liturgy\/\">Architecture and liturgy<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/st-peters-basilica\/\">Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Allen Farber, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/sarcophagus-of-junius-bassus\/\">Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 16, 2023.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-mausoleum-of-galla-placidia\/\">The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 12, 2025.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-10\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\n<p>The earliest expressions of the Christian faith in art and architecture showed iconographic and stylistic influences from Ancient Roman art: from the contrapposto in sculpture to the basilica in architecture. Early Christian architects under the patronage of the newly converted Roman Emperor Constantine changed the basilica from a secular, Roman building into early Christian architecture. With Christianity emerging in the 1<sup>st<\/sup> century C.E. in context of the Roman Empire, early Christians debated upon the role of images in religious art. The ideas and forms of early Christian aesthetics serve as a foundation for later Byzantine and Medieval art and architecture.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-10\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Christ as the Good Shepherd<\/em>, catacomb of Priscilla, Rome, 3rd century C.E., fresco<\/li>\n<li><em>Christ as the Good Shepherd<\/em>, 300\u2013350 C.E., marble<\/li>\n<li><em>Old St. Peter&#8217;s Basilica<\/em>, Rome<\/li>\n<li><em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/em>, c. 359 C.E., marble<\/li>\n<li><em>The Good Shepherd<\/em>,\u00a0<em>Mausoleum of Galla Placidia<\/em>, Ravenna, c. 425-426 C.E., mosaic<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"term-list-10\">Term List<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Jesus<\/li>\n<li>Gospel<\/li>\n<li>Apostles\/disciples<\/li>\n<li>Constantine<\/li>\n<li>Theodosius<\/li>\n<li>Old Testament<\/li>\n<li>New Testament<\/li>\n<li>Nicene Creed<\/li>\n<li>Trinity<\/li>\n<li>Eucharist<\/li>\n<li>Public cult<\/li>\n<li>Mystery cult<\/li>\n<li>Monotheism<\/li>\n<li>Catacomb<\/li>\n<li>Cubiculum<\/li>\n<li>Loculi<\/li>\n<li>Liturgy<\/li>\n<li>Edict of Milan<\/li>\n<li>Chi Rho<\/li>\n<li>Basilica<\/li>\n<li>Narthex<\/li>\n<li>Nave<\/li>\n<li>Aisle<\/li>\n<li>Apse<\/li>\n<li>Transept<\/li>\n<li>Altar<\/li>\n<li>Sarcophagus<\/li>\n<li><em>Traditio legis<\/em><\/li>\n<li><em>Adventus<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Mosaic<\/li>\n<li>Tesserae<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"christianity-an-introduction\">Christianity, an introduction<\/h2>\n<h3 id=\"how-little-we-know\">How little we know<\/h3>\n<p>Almost nothing is known about Jesus beyond biblical accounts, although we do know quite a bit more about the cultural and political context in which he lived\u2014for example, Jerusalem in the first century. What follows is an introductory historical summary of Christianity. It hardly needs stating that there are many interpretations and disagreements among historians.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1759\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1759\" style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/07\/StandardScenes.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1759\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-scaled.jpeg\" alt=\"Mosaic artwork depicting a central Christ with a halo holding a cross staff, surrounded by six white sheep in a pastoral setting with plants and rocks. The scene uses gold, blue, and earth tones, framed by a decorative arch with intricate patterns and symbols.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1534\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-scaled.jpeg 2560w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-300x180.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-1024x614.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-768x460.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-1536x920.jpeg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-2048x1227.jpeg 2048w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-65x39.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-225x135.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-350x210.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1759\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>The Good Shepherd<\/em>, The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, 425 C.E., mosaic, Ravenna, Italy (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/e8FGkW\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"jesus-v.-rome\">Jesus v.\u00a0Rome<\/h3>\n<p>The biblical Jesus, described in the Gospels as the son of a carpenter, was a Jew and a champion of the underdog. He rebelled against the occupying Roman government in what was then Palestine (at this point the Roman Empire stretched across the Mediterranean). He was crucified for upsetting the social order and challenging the authority of the Romans and their local Jewish leaders. The Romans crucified Jesus, a typical method of execution\u2014especially for those accused of crimes against the government.<\/p>\n<p>Jesus\u2019s followers claim that after three days he rose from the grave and later ascended into heaven. His original followers, known as disciples or apostles, traveled great distances and spread Jesus\u2019s message. His life is recorded in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, which are found in the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-christian-bible-2\/\">New Testament<\/a>. \u201cChrist\u201d means messiah or savior (this belief in a savior is a traditional part of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/judaism-an-introduction-2\/\">Jewish theology<\/a>).<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"old-and-new-testaments\">Old and\u00a0New Testaments<\/h3>\n<p>Early on, there were many ways that Christianity was practiced and understood, and it wasn\u2019t until the second century that Christianity began to be understood as a religion distinct from Judaism (it\u2019s helpful to remember that Judaism itself had many different sects). Christians were sometimes severely persecuted by the Romans. In the early fourth century, the Roman Emperor\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-colossus-of-constantine\/\">Constantine<\/a>\u00a0experienced a miraculous conversion and made it legally acceptable to be a Christian. Less than a hundred years later, the Roman Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official state religion.<\/p>\n<p>The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-christianity-an-introduction\/\">first Christians<\/a>\u00a0were Jews (whose bible we refer to as the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/judaism-an-introduction-2\/\">Hebrew Bible<\/a>\u00a0or\u00a0<em>Tanakh<\/em>).\u00a0But soon pagans too converted to this new religion. Christians saw the predictions of the prophets in the Hebrew Bible come to fulfillment in the life of Jesus Christ\u2014hence the \u201cBible\u201d of the Christians includes both the Hebrew Bible (or the Old Testament) and the New Testament.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1760\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1760\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Isaac-Ravenna.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1760\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image225.jpeg\" alt=\"A colorful mosaic depicting a biblical scene with a central figure in white robes raising a hand over a kneeling child on an altar, accompanied by a lamb and two seated figures with halos. The mosaic features detailed greenery, birds, and a decorative border with circular patterns, illustrating a moment of sacrifice.\" width=\"870\" height=\"629\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image225.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image225-300x217.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image225-768x555.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image225-65x47.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image225-225x163.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image225-350x253.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1760\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Sacrifice of Isaac, mosaic, early 6th century, San Vitale, Ravenna, Italy (photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/pov_steve\/33602835706\/in\/photolist-Pd6WYY-8nQAaf-296KoNn-2fW1Fpx-28zZbmu-cARHPw-e9BFp8-9YkDhW-7VMDFS-28zZ5jE-Rgfsig-2f3jRm2-JuMZ9W-7D3tar-JuMZFs-c5QXkE-c5QXXu-c5QZao-cARHVQ-c67JYd-cARJ9j-Tcnjmj-28FHZDb-Ln6gPU-cARHEG-9YkCRG-QtCger-419Pqc-bCCLJb-cARHJJ-kH7LXR-cARHAW-9N8yZo-9cdyEu-MFX3wM-c5QZXj-ehNq8n-5RdjjJ-qjKFTz-cARHuf-9sR5d8-cARJ1Q-2iy6DgY-TopYkv-2iy7SP8-xt4Y4R-2rRtSM6-2d1VUXb-5FzhTL-2ojCo91\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In addition to the fulfillment of prophecy, Christians saw parallels between the events of the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament. These parallels, or foreshadowings, are called typology. One example would be Abraham\u2019s willingness to sacrifice his son, Isaac, and the later sacrifice of Christ on the cross.\u00a0 We often see these comparisons in Christian art offered as a revelation of God\u2019s plan for the salvation of mankind.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"different-christianities\">Different Christianities<\/h3>\n<p>Unlike Greek and Roman religions (there was both an official \u201cstate\u201d religion as well as other cults), Christianity emphasized belief and a personal relationship with God. The doctrines, or main teachings, of Christianity were determined in a series of councils in the early Christian period, such as the Council of Nicea in 325. This resulted in a common statement of belief known as the Nicene Creed, which is still used by some churches today.<\/p>\n<p>Nevertheless, there is great diversity in Christian belief and practice. This was true even in the early days of Christianity, when, for example, Arians (who believed that the three parts of the\u00a0Holy Trinity\u00a0were not equal) and Donatists (who held that priests who had renounced their Christian faith during periods of persecution could not administer the sacraments), were considered heretics (someone who goes against official teaching). Today there are approximately 2.2 billion Christians who belong to a multitude of sects.<\/p>\n<p>The two dominant early branches of Christianity were the Catholic and Orthodox Churches, rooted in Western and Eastern Europe respectively.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-protestant-reformation\/\">Protestantism<\/a>\u00a0(and its different forms) emerged only later, at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Before that there was essentially just one church in Western Europe\u2014what we would call the Roman Catholic church today (to differentiate it from other forms of Christianity in the West such as Lutheranism, Methodism etc.). Christianity spread throughout the world. In the sixteenth century, the Jesuits (a Catholic order), sent missionaries to Asia, North and South America, and Africa often in concert with Europe\u2019s colonial expansion.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"doctrines\">Doctrines<\/h3>\n<p>Christianity holds that God has a three-part nature\u2014that God is a trinity (God the father, the Holy Spirit, and Jesus Christ) and that it was Jesus\u2019s death on the cross\u2014his sacrifice\u2014that allowed for human beings to have the possibility of eternal life in heaven. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"There are also nontrinitian Christians.\" id=\"return-footnote-1781-1\" href=\"#footnote-1781-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> In Christian theology, Christ is seen as the second Adam, and Mary (Jesus\u2019s mother) is seen as the second Eve. The idea here is that where Adam and Eve caused original sin, and were expelled from paradise (the Garden of Eden), Mary and Christ made it possible for human beings to have eternal life in paradise (heaven), through Christ\u2019s sacrifice on the cross.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1761\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1761\" style=\"width: 621px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/MasaccioHolyTrinity.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1761\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image226.jpeg\" alt=\"A fresco painting depicting a religious scene with Jesus Christ crucified at the center, flanked by four mourners dressed in vibrant robes. The composition is framed by classical architectural elements including two large white columns and a rounded arch with red and pink tones, set above a stone tomb with an inscription.\" width=\"621\" height=\"1171\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image226.jpeg 621w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image226-159x300.jpeg 159w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image226-543x1024.jpeg 543w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image226-65x123.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image226-225x424.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image226-350x660.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 621px) 100vw, 621px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1761\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Masaccio,\u00a0<em>Holy Trinity<\/em>, c. 1427, fresco (Santa Maria Novella, Florence; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/profzucker\/30744058397\/\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Christian practice centers on the sacrament of the Eucharist, which is sometimes referred to as Communion. Christians eat bread and drink wine to remember Christ\u2019s sacrifice for the sins of humankind. Christ himself initiated this practice at the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-lives-of-christ-and-the-virgin-in-byzantine-art\/#Supper:~:text=NC%2DSA%202.0)-,The%20Last%20Supper,-The%20Last%20Supper\">Last Supper<\/a>. Catholics and Eastern Orthodox believe that the bread and wine literally transform into the body and blood of Christ, whereas Protestants and other Christians see the Eucharist as symbolic reminder and re-enactment of Christ\u2019s sacrifice.<\/p>\n<p>Christians demonstrate their faith by engaging in good (charitable) works (works of art\u2014like the frescoes by\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/giotto-arena-scrovegni-chapel\/\">Giotto<\/a>\u00a0in the Arena Chapel\u2014were often created as good works). They often engage in rituals (sacraments) such as partaking of the Eucharist or being baptized. Traditional Christian churches have a hierarchical structure of clergy. Devout men and women sometimes become nuns or monks and may separate themselves from the world and live a cloistered life devoted to prayer in a monastery.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"early-christianity-an-introduction\">Early Christianity, an introduction<\/h2>\n<h3 id=\"key-events\">Key events<\/h3>\n<p>Two important moments played a critical role in the development of early Christianity:<\/p>\n<p>1. The decision of the\u00a0Apostle Paul\u00a0to spread\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christianity-an-introduction\/\">Christianity<\/a>\u00a0beyond the Jewish communities of Palestine into the Greco-Roman world.<\/p>\n<p>2. When the Roman\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-christian-art-and-architecture-after-constantine\/\">Emperor Constantine<\/a>\u00a0accepted Christianity and became its patron at the beginning of the fourth century.<\/p>\n<p>The creation and nature of Christian art were directly impacted by these moments.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-spread-of-christianity\">The spread of Christianity<\/h3>\n<p>As implicit in the names of his\u00a0Epistles, Paul spread Christianity to the Greek and Roman cities of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-mediterranean\/\">ancient Mediterranean world<\/a>. In cities like Ephesus, Corinth, Thessaloniki, and Rome, Paul encountered the religious and cultural experience of the Greco-Roman world. This encounter played a major role in the formation of Christianity.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"christianity-as-a-mystery-cult\">Christianity as a mystery cult<\/h3>\n<p>Christianity in its first three centuries was one of a large number of mystery religions that flourished in the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-ancient-rome\/\">Roman world<\/a>. Religion in the Roman world was divided between the public, inclusive cults of civic religions and the secretive, exclusive mystery cults. The emphasis in the civic cults was on customary practices, especially sacrifices. Since the early history of the polis or city-state in Greek culture, the public cults played an important role in defining civic identity.<\/p>\n<p>As it expanded and assimilated more people, Rome continued to use the public religious experience to define the identity of its citizens. The\u00a0polytheism\u00a0of the Romans allowed the assimilation of the gods of the people it had conquered.<\/p>\n<p>Thus, when the Roman Emperor Hadrian created the<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-pantheon\/\">\u00a0Pantheon<\/a>\u00a0in the early second century, the building\u2019s dedication to all the gods signified the Roman ambition of bringing cosmos or order to the gods, just as new and foreign societies were brought into political order through the spread of Roman imperial authority. The order of Roman authority on earth is a reflection of the divine cosmos.<\/p>\n<p>For most adherents of mystery cults, there was no contradiction in participating in both the public cults and a mystery cult. The different religious experiences appealed to different aspects of life. In contrast to the civic identity which was at the focus of the public cults, the mystery religions appealed to the participant\u2019s concerns for personal salvation. The mystery cults focused on a central mystery that would only be known by those who had become initiated into the teachings of the cult.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"monotheism\">Monotheism<\/h3>\n<p>These are characteristics Christianity shares with numerous other mystery cults. In early Christianity emphasis was placed on\u00a0baptism, which marked the initiation of the convert into the mysteries of the faith. The Christian emphasis on the belief in salvation and an afterlife is consistent with the other mystery cults. The\u00a0monotheism\u00a0of Christianity, though, was a crucial difference from the other cults. The refusal of the early Christians to participate in the civic cults due to their monotheistic beliefs lead to their persecution. Christians were seen as anti-social.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"early-christian-art\">Early Christian art<\/h2>\n<p>The beginnings of an identifiable Christian art can be traced to the end of the second century and the beginning of the third century. Considering the Old Testament prohibitions against graven images, it is important to consider why Christian art developed in the first place. The use of images will be a continuing issue in the history of Christianity. The best explanation for the emergence of Christian art in the early church is due to the important role images played in Greco-Roman culture.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1762\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1762\" style=\"width: 751px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/16542782897_82690a181e_o.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1762\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image227.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient underground catacomb with arched ceilings and walls adorned with faded frescoes and murals in earthy tones. The space features a central stone bench, a bricked-up niche, and detailed decorative panels.\" width=\"751\" height=\"747\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image227.jpeg 751w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image227-300x298.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image227-150x150.jpeg 150w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image227-65x65.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image227-225x224.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image227-350x348.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 751px) 100vw, 751px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1762\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Greek Chapel, late 2nd century\u20134th century C.E. (Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/rcQ61M\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>As Christianity gained converts, these new Christians had been brought up on the value of images in their previous cultural experience and they wanted to continue this in their Christian experience. For example, there was a change in burial practices in the Roman world away from cremation to inhumation. Outside the city walls of Rome, adjacent to major roads,\u00a0catacombs\u00a0were dug into the ground to bury the dead. Families would have chambers or\u00a0<em>cubicula<\/em>\u00a0dug to bury their members. Wealthy Romans would also have sarcophagi or marble tombs carved for their burial. The Christian converts wanted the same things. Christian catacombs were dug frequently adjacent to non-Christian ones, and sarcophagi with Christian imagery were apparently popular with the richer Christians.<\/p>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/sarcophagus-of-junius-bassus\/\">Junius Bassus<\/a>, a Roman praefectus urbi or high ranking government administrator, died in 359 C.E. Scholars believe that he converted to Christianity shortly before his death accounting for the inclusion of Christ and scenes from the Bible.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1763\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1763\" style=\"width: 1430px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/1-Full.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1763\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of an ancient Roman sarcophagus featuring detailed relief sculptures arranged in two horizontal registers. The upper register shows a series of standing figures in togas engaged in various interactions, while the lower register depicts scenes with both standing and seated figures, including a central figure on horseback, all framed by ornate columns and arches.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"1034\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228.jpeg 1430w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228-300x217.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228-1024x740.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228-768x555.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228-65x47.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228-225x163.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228-350x253.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1430px) 100vw, 1430px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1763\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Plaster cast copy of\u00a0<em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/em>, original is 359 C.E., marble (Treasury, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/profzucker\/4061884878\/\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"themes-of-death-and-resurrection\">Themes of death and resurrection<\/h3>\n<p>A striking aspect of the Christian art of the third century is the absence of the imagery that will dominate later Christian art. We do not find in this early period images of the Nativity, Crucifixion, or Resurrection of Christ, for example. This absence of direct images of the life of Christ is best explained by the status of Christianity as a mystery religion. The story of the Crucifixion and Resurrection would be part of the secrets of the cult.<\/p>\n<p>While not directly representing these central Christian images, the theme of death and resurrection was represented through a series of images, many of which were derived from the Old Testament that echoed the themes. For example, the story of Jonah\u2014being swallowed by a great fish and then after spending three days and three nights in the belly of the beast is vomited out on dry ground\u2014was seen by early Christians as an anticipation or prefiguration of the story of Christ\u2019s own death and resurrection. Images of Jonah, along with those of Daniel in the Lion\u2019s Den, the Three Hebrews in the Firey Furnace, Moses Striking the Rock, among others, are widely popular in the Christian art of the third century, both in paintings and on sarcophagi.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1764\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1764\" style=\"width: 1429px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/30724112054_6a9cc43de6_4k-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1764\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image229.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed marble relief sculpture depicting a muscular, reclining male figure with curly hair, seemingly in a struggle with a serpent-like creature. The scene includes intricate carvings of draped figures and ornamental elements, highlighting dynamic movement and classical artistic style.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"804\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image229.jpeg 1429w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image229-300x169.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image229-1024x576.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image229-768x432.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image229-65x37.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image229-225x127.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image229-350x197.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1429px) 100vw, 1429px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1764\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Jonah in the pose of Endymion\u00a0(detail), <em>Santa Maria Antiqua Sarcophagus<\/em>, c. 275 C.E., white veined marble (Santa Maria Antiqua, Rome; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/NNZ76U\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>All of these can be seen to allegorically allude to the principal narratives of the life of Christ. The common subject of salvation echoes the major emphasis in the mystery religions on personal salvation. The appearance of these subjects frequently adjacent to each other in the catacombs and sarcophagi can be read as a visual litany: save me Lord as you have saved Jonah from the belly of the great fish, save me Lord as you have saved the Hebrews in the desert, save me Lord as you have saved Daniel in the Lion\u2019s den, etc.<\/p>\n<p>One can imagine that early Christians\u2014who were rallying around the nascent religious authority of the Church against the regular threats of persecution by imperial authority\u2014would find great meaning in the story of Moses of striking the rock to provide water for the Israelites fleeing the authority of the Pharaoh on their exodus to the Promised Land.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"christianitys-canonical-texts-and-the-new-testament\">Christianity\u2019s canonical texts and the New Testament<\/h3>\n<p>One of the major differences between Christianity and the public cults was the central role faith plays in Christianity and the importance of orthodox beliefs. The history of the early Church is marked by the struggle to establish a canonical set of texts and the establishment of orthodox doctrine.<\/p>\n<p>Questions about the nature of the Trinity and Christ would continue to challenge religious authority. Within the civic cults there were no central texts and there were no orthodox doctrinal positions. The emphasis was on maintaining customary traditions. One accepted the existence of the gods, but there was no emphasis on belief in the gods.<\/p>\n<p>The Christian emphasis on orthodox doctrine has its closest parallels in the Greek and Roman world to the role of philosophy. Schools of philosophy centered around the teachings or doctrines of a particular teacher. The schools of philosophy proposed specific conceptions of reality. Ancient philosophy was influential in the formation of Christian theology. For example, the opening of the Gospel of John: \u201cIn the beginning was the word and the word was with God\u2026,\u201d is unmistakably based on the idea of the \u201clogos\u201d going back to the philosophy of Heraclitus. Christian apologists like Justin Martyr writing in the second century understood Christ as the Logos or the Word of God who served as an intermediary between God and the World.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"early-representations-of-christ-and-the-apostles\">Early representations of Christ and the apostles<\/h3>\n<p>An early representation of Christ found in the Catacomb of Domitilla shows the figure of Christ flanked by a group of his disciples or students. Those experienced with later Christian imagery might mistake this for an image of the Last Supper, but instead this image does not tell any story. It conveys rather the idea that Christ is the true teacher.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1765\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1765\" style=\"width: 1200px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/domitil1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1765\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image230.jpeg\" alt=\"A fresco painting depicting a group of seated figures in ancient attire, arranged in a semi-circular composition under an arched ceiling. The artwork features earthy tones of red, brown, and beige, highlighting a communal or ceremonial scene.\" width=\"1200\" height=\"670\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image230.jpeg 1200w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image230-300x168.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image230-1024x572.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image230-768x429.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image230-65x36.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image230-225x126.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image230-350x195.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1200px) 100vw, 1200px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1765\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>Christ and the Apostles<\/em>, Catacombs of Domitilla, 4th century C.E., Rome (Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Christ_teacher.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Christ draped in classical garb holds a scroll in his left hand while his right hand is outstretched in the so-called\u00a0<em>ad locutio<\/em>\u00a0gesture, or the gesture of the orator. The dress, scroll, and gesture all establish the authority of Christ, who is placed in the center of his disciples. Christ is thus treated like the philosopher surrounded by his students or disciples.<\/p>\n<p>Comparably, an early representation of the apostle Paul, identifiable with his characteristic pointed beard and high forehead, is based on the convention of the philosopher, as exemplified by a Roman copy of a late fourth century B.C.E. portrait of the fifth century B.C.E. playwright Sophocles.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1766\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1766\" style=\"width: 1403px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/paul.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1766\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image231.jpeg\" alt=\"A side-by-side comparison of an ancient fresco and a marble statue, both depicting a robed male figure standing next to a cylindrical object. The fresco uses earthy tones with visible brush strokes, while the statue features detailed drapery and a bearded face, highlighting artistic styles and preservation differences from antiquity.\" width=\"1403\" height=\"1146\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image231.jpeg 1403w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image231-300x245.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image231-1024x836.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image231-768x627.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image231-65x53.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image231-225x184.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image231-350x286.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1403px) 100vw, 1403px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1766\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Left:\u00a0<em>Saint Paul,<\/em> late 2nd century\u20134th century C.E., wall painting (Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Paul_philosopher.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>); and right:\u00a0<em>Sophocles<\/em>, 1st century C.E. Roman copy of a Greek bronze, marble (Vatican Museums, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/md1vzn\">Egisto Sani<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 id=\"catacomb-of-priscilla-rome\">Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome<\/h2>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/z_5AAk1jABI?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"the-good-shepherd-in-early-christianity\">The Good Shepherd in Early Christianity<\/h2>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"The Good Shepherd in Early Christianity \u2014 Hermes recast\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/pBFwGYrfyXU?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"early-christian-art-and-architecture-after-constantine\">Early Christian art and architecture after Constantine<\/h2>\n<p>By the beginning of the 4th century Christianity was a growing mystery religion in the cities of the Roman world. It was attracting converts from different social levels. Christian theology and art was enriched through the cultural interaction with the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-ancient-rome\/\">Greco-Roman world<\/a>. But Christianity would be radically transformed through the actions of a single man.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"rome-becomes-christian-and-constantine-builds-churches\">Rome becomes Christian and\u00a0Constantine builds churches<\/h3>\n<p>In 312, the Emperor Constantine defeated his principal rival Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge. Accounts of the battle describe how Constantine saw a sign in the heavens portending his victory. Eusebius, Constantine\u2019s principal biographer, describes the sign as the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Chi-Rho.png\">Chi Rho<\/a>, the first two letters in the Greek spelling of the name Christos.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1767\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1767\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/07\/ConstantinePiecesMed.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1767\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image232.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of ancient marble sculptures displayed against a beige wall, featuring a large head bust on a pedestal, a detached arm, a hand with an extended index finger, and a smaller rounded fragment. The sculptures are arranged on a cobblestone ground between stone columns, highlighting classical Roman art and architectural elements.\" width=\"870\" height=\"522\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image232.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image232-300x180.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image232-768x461.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image232-65x39.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image232-225x135.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image232-350x210.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1767\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Colossus of Constantine, c. 312\u2013315 C.E., marble (Palazzo dei Conservatori, Musei Capitolini, Rome; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/dvXsPj\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>After that victory Constantine became the principal patron of Christianity. In 313 he issued the Edict of Milan which granted religious toleration. Although Christianity would not become the official religion of Rome until the end of the 4th century, Constantine\u2019s imperial sanction of Christianity transformed its status and nature. Neither imperial Rome or Christianity would be the same after this moment. Rome would become Christian, and Christianity would take on the aura of imperial Rome.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1768\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1768\" style=\"width: 790px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Dura-Europos.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1768\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image233.jpeg\" alt=\"Isometric architectural drawing of Dura Europos Christian Church, showing detailed interior layout with labeled sections including baptistry, assembly room, baptistery, and various features like a well, benches, and frescoes. Walls are depicted with brick patterns, and key elements are numbered with a legend explaining each part, highlighting the church's structure and religious functions.\" width=\"790\" height=\"992\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image233.jpeg 790w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image233-239x300.jpeg 239w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image233-768x964.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image233-65x82.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image233-225x283.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image233-350x439.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 790px) 100vw, 790px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1768\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Isometric rendering of the Christian building at Dura-Europos (c. 240 C.E.), by Henry Pearson, 1932\u201334 (<a href=\"http:\/\/media.artgallery.yale.edu\/duraeuropos\/dura.html\">Yale University Art Gallery<\/a>, New Haven)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The transformation of Christianity is dramatically evident in a comparison between the architecture of the pre-Constantinian church and that of the Constantinian and post-Constantinian church. During the pre-Constantinian period, there was not much that distinguished the Christian churches from typical domestic architecture. A striking example of this is presented by a Christian community house, from the Syrian town of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/dura-europos\/\">Dura-Europos<\/a>. Here a typical home has been adapted to the needs of the congregation. A wall was taken down to combine two rooms: this was undoubtedly the room for services. It is significant that the most elaborate aspect of the house is the room designed as a baptistry. This reflects the importance of the sacrament of Baptism to initiate new members into the mysteries of the faith. Otherwise this building would not stand out from the other houses. This domestic architecture obviously would not meet the needs of Constantine\u2019s architects.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1769\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1769\" style=\"width: 509px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/ag-obj-34499-0004-pub-copy.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1769\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image234.jpeg\" alt=\"Fragment of an ancient wall painting depicting a boat with several figures on board and two standing figures on land. The artwork uses muted earth tones with horizontal bands at the bottom, suggesting a scene related to the Sacrament of Baptism.\" width=\"509\" height=\"653\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image234.jpeg 509w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image234-234x300.jpeg 234w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image234-65x83.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image234-225x289.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image234-350x449.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 509px) 100vw, 509px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1769\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Baptistery wall painting: <em>Christ Walking on Water<\/em>, 232 C.E., paint on plaster, found in Dura-Europos, Syria (<a href=\"https:\/\/artgallery.yale.edu\/collections\/objects\/34499\">Yale University Art Gallery<\/a>, New Haven, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a> in the United States)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Emperors for centuries had been responsible for the construction of temples throughout the Roman Empire. We have already observed the role of the public cults in defining one\u2019s civic identity, and Emperors understood the construction of temples as testament to their\u00a0<em>pietas<\/em>, or respect for the customary religious practices and traditions. Therefore, it was natural for Constantine to want to construct edifices in honor of Christianity. He built churches in Rome, including the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/st-peters-basilica\/\">Church of St. Peter<\/a>, he built churches in the Holy Land, most notably the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem and the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, and he built churches in his newly-constructed capital of Constantinople.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-basilica\">The basilica<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1770\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1770\" style=\"width: 1280px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/De_sacris_aedificiis_a_Costantino_Magno_constructis_synopsis_historica_pag._33_Tab._VIII.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1770\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image235.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed architectural drawing of a large, rectangular hall with a high pitched roof supported by wooden beams and columns. The perspective view highlights symmetrical rows of arches and pillars along both sides, with a tiled floor and an open central nave.\" width=\"1280\" height=\"886\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image235.jpeg 1280w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image235-300x208.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image235-1024x709.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image235-768x532.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image235-65x45.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image235-225x156.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image235-350x242.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1280px) 100vw, 1280px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1770\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Old St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Rome, Giovanni Ciampini,\u00a0De sacris aedificiis a Constantino Magno constructis: synopsis historica, 1693, p. 33 (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:De_sacris_aedificiis_a_Costantino_Magno_constructis_synopsis_historica_pag._33_Tab._VIII.jpg\">Gryffindor<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In creating these churches, Constantine and his architects confronted a major challenge: what should be the physical form of the church? Clearly the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/roman-architecture\/\">traditional form of the Roman temple<\/a>\u00a0would be inappropriate both from associations with pagan cults but also from the difference in function. Temples served as treasuries and dwellings for the cult; sacrifices occurred on outdoor altars with the temple as a backdrop. This meant that Roman temple architecture was largely an architecture of the exterior. Since Christianity was a mystery religion that demanded initiation to participate in religious practices, Christian architecture put greater emphasis on the interior. The Christian churches needed large interior spaces to house the growing congregations and to mark the clear separation of the faithful from the unfaithful. At the same time, the new Christian churches needed to be visually meaningful. The buildings needed to convey the new authority of Christianity. These factors were instrumental in the formulation during the Constantinian period of an architectural form that would become the core of Christian architecture to our own time: the Christian Basilica.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1771\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1771\" style=\"width: 1011px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/DCCpABWWAAAS9K5.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1771\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image236.jpeg\" alt=\"Reconstruction of the interior of the Basilica Ulpia, Roman basilica interior featuring two tiers of white columns with ornate capitals supporting a coffered wooden ceiling. The spacious hall has a checkered marble floor with small groups of people scattered throughout, highlighting architectural grandeur and social gathering function.\" width=\"1011\" height=\"679\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image236.jpeg 1011w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image236-300x201.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image236-768x516.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image236-65x44.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image236-225x151.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image236-350x235.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1011px) 100vw, 1011px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1771\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Reconstruction of the interior of the Basilica Ulpia, Rome (image:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.romanoimpero.com\/2010\/10\/basilica-ulpia.html\">Gilbert Gorski<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The basilica was not a new architectural form. The Romans had been building basilicas in their cities and as part of palace complexes for centuries. A particularly lavish one was the so-called Basilica Ulpia constructed as part of the<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/forum-and-markets-of-trajan\/\">\u00a0Forum of the Emperor Trajan<\/a>\u00a0in the early 2nd century. Basilicas had diverse functions but essentially they served as formal public meeting places. One of the major functions of the basilicas was as a site for law courts. These were housed in an architectural form known as the\u00a0apse. In the Basilica Ulpia, these semi-circular forms project from either end of the building, but in some cases, the apses would project off of the length of the building. The magistrate who served as the representative of the authority of the Emperor would sit in a formal throne in the apse and issue his judgments. This function gave an aura of political authority to the basilicas. Basilicas also served as audience halls as a part of imperial palaces, such as the basilica at Trier built by Constantine as part of a palace complex in Trier, which served as his northern capital. Either way, the association between basilicas and the emperor was clear.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"christian-use-of-the-roman-basilica\">Christian use of the Roman basilica<\/h3>\n<p>Not long after his conversion and subsequent legalization of Christianity, Constantine began an extensive building campaign to support his new state religion in major cities such as Rome, Jerusalem, and Constantinople. In looking for a structure to address the spatial needs of the developing Christian liturgy (such as increasing congregation size and more elaborate processions), he adapted the Roman basilica, which until that point had been used exclusively as a civic building, like the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/basilica-of-maxentius-and-constantine\/\">Basilica of Maxentius and Constantine<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>Roman basilicas were long rectangular buildings, often with a central nave (a wide, center aisle)\u00a0and two side aisles. There was at least one semicircular apse, often at one end of the building, in which the magistrates sat and heard their cases. The basilica was in many ways the perfect building to adapt into a church because it did not have the pagan associations that Roman temples did and was large enough to accommodate the growing Christian population.<\/p>\n<p>Early Christian basilicas such as\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/santa-sabina\/\">Santa Sabina<\/a>\u00a0and San Paolo fuori le Mura (Saint Paul\u2019s Outside the Walls) maintained the basic structure of the Roman basilica, but distinctly Christian elements were added. The bema was retained from the synagogue and continued to be used as the raised platform from which priests preached (by the late Middle Ages this was often attached to a pillar to one side of the central aisle of the nave). Many churches added the ambo, an even higher platform, accessed by stairs, from which the Gospel was read and sermons were preached\u2014in which case the bema was reserved for the recitation of prayers and the reading of the Epistles or Old Testament. Another distinctly Christian architectural element was the transept, which was added near the apse-end of the building to form a cross-shape and provide additional space.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1772\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1772\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/16564087789_a134b57e6d_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1772\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image237.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a large, historic basilica interior featuring two rows of tall, ornate columns with arches supporting high walls and a coffered ceiling. The far end displays a semicircular apse with religious frescoes above arched windows, and a few people stand on the marble floor, emphasizing the vast, open space.\" width=\"870\" height=\"634\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image237.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image237-300x219.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image237-768x560.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image237-65x47.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image237-225x164.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image237-350x255.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1772\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">View down the nave towards the apse with altar, Basilica of Santa Sabina, c. 432 C.E., Rome (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/reHhdv\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Most significant among the Christian additions to the basilica, and the central focus for the liturgy, was the altar upon which the eucharist was celebrated. Altars were located either right in front of or just inside of the apse (as in Santa Sabina)\u2014that is, within the Christian equivalent of the Jewish Holy of Holies. Up until the Middle Ages, most altars were wooden table-like structures; they then transitioned into stone. In the early 5th century, the Church formally required the installation of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/pilgrimage-routes-and-the-cult-of-the-relic\/\">saints\u2019 relics<\/a>\u00a0(often bone fragments) in altars. This practice was based in part on the tradition of placing altars on top of martyrs\u2019 tombs (like at\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/st-peters-basilica\/\">Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica<\/a>\u00a0in Rome) and the text of Revelation 6:9-10, which describes martyrs crying out for justice from under the altar in heaven. The three main areas of the church came to be ascribed with symbolic meaning: the narthex, or entry, was the world; the nave, or main hall, was the Kingdom of God; and the sanctuary, or altar area\u2014like the Holy of Holies\u2014was heaven.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"old-st.-peters-basilica\">Old St. Peter\u2019s Basilica<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1773\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1773\" style=\"width: 1280px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1773\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image238.jpeg\" alt=\"Black and white architectural drawing depicting Old Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome around the year 1475, showcasing detailed structures including domes, towers, and colonnades. The illustration highlights the basilica's layout withsurrounding buildings, emphasizing historical design and spatial organization.\" width=\"1280\" height=\"849\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image238.jpeg 1280w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image238-300x199.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image238-1024x679.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image238-768x509.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image238-65x43.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image238-225x149.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image238-350x232.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1280px) 100vw, 1280px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1773\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">H.W. Brewer,\u00a0Drawing of Old Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica as it appeared between 1475 and 1483, 1891<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Old St Peter\u2019s Basilica was erected by Constantine in the 4th century. During the ancient Roman era, the site was Nero\u2019s Circus, a place where games and sporting events were performed. This was a place where Nero himself apparently rode a chariot. It was also a place where there was an ancient necropolis \u2014 burial ground \u2014 and by tradition, the place where Saint Peter himself was crucified and then buried.<\/p>\n<p>The site is a very holy one\u2014it is (according to the Catholic Church) the site of the burial of\u00a0Saint Peter.\u00a0Saint Peter is considered one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ and a leader of the early Church. Because of this, he is traditionally thought of as the first bishop of Rome, or Pope, given that job by Christ himself. The early Christians created a monument on the site, which was quite small and humble.<\/p>\n<p>It is on this site that Constantine ordered the building of a basilica. The basilica, with its long axis that focuses attention on the altar, is the most popular type of church plan because of its practicality and ability to hold many worshippers. The architectural design of Old St. Peter\u2019s Basilica utilized the common features of an early Christian basilica: nave, aisle, apse, altar, and transept.<\/p>\n<p>The original church, Constantine\u2019s Saint Peter\u2019s, lasted for a little more than a thousand years. By the time of the Renaissance, Old St. Peter\u2019s was in disrepair, and a massive rebuilding project began under Pope Juilius II. The resulting project becomes New St. Peter\u2019s Basilica.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"sarcophagus-of-junius-bassus\">Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/h2>\n<p>Made for a member of the Roman elite, this early tomb features Old and New Testament scenes in a classical style.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"christianity-becomes-legal\">Christianity becomes legal<\/h3>\n<p>By the middle of the fourth century\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christianity-an-introduction\/\">Christianity<\/a>\u00a0had undergone a dramatic transformation. Before\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-christianity-an-introduction\/\">Emperor Constantine\u2019s acceptance<\/a>, Christianity had a marginal status in the Roman world. Attracting converts in the urban populations, Christianity appealed to the faithful\u2019s desires for personal salvation; however, due to Christianity\u2019s\u00a0monotheism\u00a0(which prohibited its followers from participating in the public cults), Christians suffered periodic episodes of persecution. By the middle of the fourth century, Christianity under imperial patronage had become a part of the establishment. The elite of Roman society were becoming new converts.<\/p>\n<p>Such an individual was Junius Bassus. He was a member of a senatorial family. His father had held the position of\u00a0<em>Praetorian<\/em>\u00a0prefect, which involved administration of the Western Empire. Junius Bassus held the position of\u00a0<em>praefectus urbi<\/em>\u00a0(\u201curban prefect\u201d) for Rome, an office established in the early period under the kings, and was responsible for the administration of the city of Rome. It was a position held by members of the most elite families. When Junius Bassus died at the age of 42 in the year 359, a\u00a0sarcophagus\u00a0was made for him. As recorded in an inscription on the sarcophagus now in the Vatican collection, Junius Bassus had become a convert to Christianity shortly before his death.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1763\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1763\" style=\"width: 1430px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/1-Full.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1763\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of an ancient Roman sarcophagus featuring detailed relief sculptures arranged in two horizontal registers. The upper register shows a series of standing figures in togas engaged in various interactions, while the lower register depicts scenes with both standing and seated figures, including a central figure on horseback, all framed by ornate columns and arches.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"1034\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228.jpeg 1430w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228-300x217.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228-1024x740.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228-768x555.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228-65x47.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228-225x163.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image228-350x253.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1430px) 100vw, 1430px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1763\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Plaster cast copy of\u00a0<em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/em>, original is 359 C.E., marble (Treasury, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City, photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/7bWdRU\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"the-birth-of-christian-symbolism-in-art\">The birth of Christian symbolism in art<\/h3>\n<p>The style and\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-iconographic-analysis\/\">iconography<\/a>\u00a0of this sarcophagus reflects the transformed status of Christianity. This is most evident in the image at the center of the upper register. Before the time of Constantine, the figure of Christ was rarely directly represented, but here on the Junius Bassus sarcophagus we see Christ prominently represented not in a narrative representation from the New Testament but in a formula derived from Roman Imperial art. The\u00a0<em>traditio legis<\/em>\u00a0(\u201cgiving of the law\u201d) was a formula in Roman art to give visual testament to the emperor as the sole source of the law.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1774\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1774\" style=\"width: 1153px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Christ-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1774\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image239.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed photograph of an ancient Roman marble relief sculpture depicting two robed figures standing behind a seated central figure, who is elevated on a platform supported by a muscular figure beneath. The relief features ornate columns on either side, Latin inscriptions above, and intricate carvings of animals and decorative elements along the base.\" width=\"1153\" height=\"1374\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image239.jpeg 1153w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image239-252x300.jpeg 252w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image239-859x1024.jpeg 859w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image239-768x915.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image239-65x77.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image239-225x268.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image239-350x417.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1153px) 100vw, 1153px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1774\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Giving of the law (tradition legis) (detail),\u00a0<em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/em>, 359 C.E., marble (Treasury, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2mXiE9g\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Already at this early period, artists had articulated identifiable formulas for representing\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/whos-who-how-to-recognize-saints\/\">Saints Peter and Paul<\/a>. Peter was represented with a bowl haircut and a short cropped beard, while the figure of Paul was represented with a pointed beard and usually a high forehead. In paintings, Peter has white hair and Paul\u2019s hair is black. The early establishment of these formulas was undoubtedly a product of the doctrine of apostolic authority in the early church. Bishops claimed that their authority could be traced back to the original Twelve Apostles.<\/p>\n<p>Peter and Paul held the status as the principal apostles. The Bishops of Rome have understood themselves in a direct succession back to Saint Peter, the founder of the church in Rome and its first bishop. The popularity of the formula of the\u00a0<em>traditio legis<\/em>\u00a0in Christian art in the fourth century was due to the importance of establishing orthodox Christian doctrine.<\/p>\n<p>In contrast to the established formulas for representing Saints Peter and Paul, early Christian art reveals two competing conceptions of Christ. The youthful, beardless Christ, based on representation of Apollo, vied for dominance with the long-haired and bearded Christ, based on representations of Jupiter or Zeus.<\/p>\n<p>The feet of Christ in the Junius Bassus relief rest on the head of a bearded, muscular figure, who holds a billowing veil spread over his head. This is another formula derived from Roman art. A comparable figure appears at the top of the cuirass of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/augustus-of-primaporta\/\">Augustus of Primaporta<\/a>. The figure can be identified as the figure of Caelus, or the heavens. In the context of the Augustan statue, the figure of Caelus signifies Roman authority and its rule of everything earthly, that is, under the heavens. In the Junius Bassus relief, Caelus\u2019s position under Christ\u2019s feet signifies that Christ is the ruler of heaven.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1775\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1775\" style=\"width: 1429px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/horse-combo-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1775\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image240.jpeg\" alt=\"Two photographs of ancient marble relief sculptures depict historical scenes. The left relief shows a figure riding a donkey under an arch with detailed foliage and columns, while the right relief features multiple figures, including soldiers and a horse, engaged in a dynamic interaction with trees and draped cloth in the background.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"829\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image240.jpeg 1429w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image240-300x174.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image240-1024x594.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image240-768x446.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image240-65x38.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image240-225x131.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image240-350x203.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1429px) 100vw, 1429px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1775\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Left: Christ\u2019s entry into Jerusalem (detail), plaster copy of\u00a0<em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/em>, original is 359 C.E., marble (Treasury, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:1057_-_Roma,_Museo_d._civilt%C3%A0_Romana_-_Calco_sarcofago_Giunio_Basso_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto,_12-Apr-2008.jpg\">Giovanni Dall\u2019Orto<\/a>); right:\u00a0Adventus of Marcus Aurelius, 176\u201380 C.E., marble (Palazzo dei Conservatori, Rome; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_his_clemence_to_barbarii.jpg\">MatthiasKabel<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The lower register directly underneath depicts\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christ-virgin-byzantine-art\/#Entry:~:text=Praefcke%2C%20CC0)-,The%20Entry%20into%20Jerusalem,-The%20Entry%20into\">Christ\u2019s Entry into Jerusalem<\/a>. This image was also based on a formula derived from Roman imperial art. The\u00a0<em>adventus<\/em>\u00a0was a formula devised to show the triumphal arrival of the emperor with figures offering homage. A relief from the reign of Marcus Aurelius illustrates this formula. In including the Entry into Jerusalem, the designer of the Junius Bassus sarcophagus did not just use this to represent the New Testament story, but with the\u00a0<em>adventus<\/em>\u00a0iconography, this image signifies Christ\u2019s triumphal entry into Jerusalem. Whereas the\u00a0<em>traditio legis<\/em>\u00a0above conveys Christ\u2019s heavenly authority, it is likely that the Entry into Jerusalem in the form of the\u00a0<em>adventus<\/em>\u00a0was intended to signify Christ\u2019s earthly authority. The juxtaposition of the Christ in Majesty and the Entry into Jerusalem suggests that the planner of the sarcophagus had an intentional program in mind.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"old-and-new-together\">Old and new together<\/h3>\n<p>We can determine some intentionality in the inclusion of the Old and New Testament scenes. For example the image of Adam and Eve shown covering their nudity after the Fall was intended to refer to the doctrine of Original Sin that necessitated Christ\u2019s entry into the world to redeem humanity through His death and resurrection. Humanity is thus in need of salvation from this world.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1776\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1776\" style=\"width: 1395px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Adam-and-Eve-adj.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1776\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image241.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed photograph of an ancient Roman marble relief sculpture depicting Adam and Eve in nude on either side of a tree wrapped with a serpent. The figures are flanked by two ornate columns.\" width=\"1395\" height=\"1145\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image241.jpeg 1395w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image241-300x246.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image241-1024x840.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image241-768x630.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image241-65x53.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image241-225x185.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image241-350x287.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1395px) 100vw, 1395px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1776\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Adam and Eve (detail), plaster copy of\u00a0<em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/em>, original is 359 C.E., marble (Treasury, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/7bW4CA\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The inclusion of the suffering of Job on the left hand side of the lower register conveyed the meaning how even the righteous must suffer the discomforts and pains of this life. Job is saved only by his unbroken faith in God.<\/p>\n<p>The scene of Daniel in the lion\u2019s den to the right of the Entry into Jerusalem had been popular in earlier Christian art as another example of how salvation is achieved through faith in God.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1777\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1777\" style=\"width: 650px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Sacrifice-of-Isaac-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1777\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image242.jpeg\" alt=\"Marble relief sculpture depicting two robed male figures standing between two fluted columns with Corinthian capitals, accompanied by animals and a kneeling child. Latin inscription runs along top edge, highlighting Roman artistic and cultural themes.\" width=\"650\" height=\"785\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image242.jpeg 650w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image242-248x300.jpeg 248w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image242-65x79.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image242-225x272.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image242-350x423.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 650px) 100vw, 650px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1777\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Sacrifice of Isaac (detail),\u00a0<em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/em>, 359 C.E., marble (Treasury, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2mXiDWh\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Salvation is a message in the relief of Abraham\u2019s sacrifice of Isaac on the left hand side of the upper register. God challenged Abraham\u2019s faith by commanding Abraham to sacrifice his only son Isaac. At the moment when Abraham is about to carry out the sacrifice his hand is stayed by an angel. Isaac is thus saved. It is likely that the inclusion of this scene in the context of the rest of the sarcophagus had another meaning as well. The story of the father\u2019s sacrifice of his only son was understood to refer to God\u2019s sacrifice of his son, Christ, on the Cross. Early Christian theologians attempting to integrate the Old and New Testaments saw in Old Testament stories prefigurations or precursors of New Testament stories. Throughout Christian art the popularity of Abraham\u2019s Sacrifice of Isaac is explained by its typological reference to the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christ-virgin-byzantine-art\/#Crucifixion:~:text=Catherine%2C%20Sinai%2C%20Egypt)-,The%20Crucifixion,-The%20Crucifixion%20depicts\">Crucifixion of Christ<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"martyrdom\">Martyrdom<\/h3>\n<p>While not showing directly the Crucifixion of Christ, the inclusion of the Judgment of Pilate in two compartments on the right hand side of the upper register is an early appearance in Christian art of a scene drawn from Christ\u2019s Passion. The scene is based on the formula in Roman art of Justitia, illustrated here by a panel made for Marcus Aurelius. Here the emperor is shown seated on the\u00a0<em>sella curulis<\/em>\u00a0dispensing justice to a barbarian figure. On the sarcophagus, Pilate is shown seated also on a\u00a0<em>sella curulis<\/em>. The position of Pontius Pilate as the Roman prefect or governor of Judaea undoubtedly carried special meaning for Junius Bassus in his role as\u00a0<em>praefectus urbi<\/em>\u00a0in Rome. Junius Bassus as a senior magistrate would also be entitled to sit on a\u00a0<em>sella curulis<\/em>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1778\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1778\" style=\"width: 1430px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/51820389712_56dcdc06bc_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1778\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image243.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of an ancient marble relief sculpture depicting a group of robed figures engaged in a scene, framed by intricately carved columns and architectural elements. The relief features detailed drapery, a seated figure holding a scroll, and Latin inscriptions along the top edge, highlighting classical artistic style and historical context.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"1130\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image243.jpeg 1430w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image243-300x237.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image243-1024x809.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image243-768x607.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image243-65x51.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image243-225x178.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image243-350x277.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1430px) 100vw, 1430px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1778\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Judgement of Pilate (detail),\u00a0<em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/em>, 359 C.E., marble (Treasury, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2mXc3t3\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Just as Christ was judged by Roman authority, Saints Peter and Paul were martyred under Roman rule. The remaining two scenes on the sarcophagus represent Saints Peter and Paul being led to their martyrdoms. Peter and Paul as the principal apostles of Christ are again given prominence. Their martyrdoms witness Christ\u2019s own death. The artists seem to be making this point by the visual pairing of the scene of Saint Peter being led to his martyrdom and the figure of Christ before Pilate. In both scenes the principal figure is flanked by two other figures.<\/p>\n<p>The importance of Peter and Paul in Rome is made apparent in that two of the major churches that Constantine constructed in Rome were the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/st-peters-basilica\/\">Church of Saint Peter<\/a>\u00a0and the Church of Saint Paul Outside the Walls. The site of the Church of Saint Peter has long believed to be the place of Saint Peter\u2019s burial. The basilica was constructed in an ancient cemetery. Although we can not be certain the the Junius Bassus Sarcophagus was originally intended for this site, it would make sense that a prominent Roman Christian like Junius Bassus would want to be buried in close physical proximity to the burial spot of the founder of the Church of Rome.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"competing-styles\">Competing styles<\/h3>\n<p>At either end of the Junius Bassus sarcophagus appear\u00a0Erotes\u00a0harvesting grapes and wheat. A panel with the same subject was probably a part of a pagan sarcophagus made for a child. This iconography is based on images of the seasons in Roman art. Again, the artists have taken conventions from Greek and Roman art and converted it into a Christian context. The wheat and grapes of the classical motif would be understood in the Christian context as a reference to the bread and wine of the\u00a0Eucharist.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1779\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1779\" style=\"width: 1430px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/1065_-_Roma_Museo_d._civilta%CC%80_Romana_-_Calco_sarcofago_Giunio_Basso_-_Foto_Giovanni_DallOrto_12-Apr-2008-copy.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1779\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image244.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of a detailed stone relief sculpture depicting cherubic figures harvesting grapes and interacting with animals. The relief features intricate vine and grape motifs, with cherubs in dynamic poses, highlighting themes of abundance and pastoral life.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"950\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image244.jpeg 1430w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image244-300x199.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image244-1024x680.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image244-768x510.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image244-65x43.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image244-225x149.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image244-350x233.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1430px) 100vw, 1430px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1779\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Erotes harvesting grapes (detail), plaster copy of\u00a0<em>Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus,<\/em> original is 359 C.E., marble (Treasury, St. Peter\u2019s Basilica, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:1065_-_Roma,_Museo_d._civilt%C3%A0_Romana_-_Calco_sarcofago_Giunio_Basso_-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto,_12-Apr-2008.jpg\">Giovanni Dall\u2019Orto<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1780\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1780\" style=\"width: 1429px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Getty-image-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1780\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image245.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed photograph of an ancient stone relief depicting multiple cherubic figures engaged in harvesting and gathering fruit. The relief features intricate carvings of trees, baskets, and floral motifs, highlighting a scene of abundance and communal activity.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"564\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image245.jpeg 1429w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image245-300x118.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image245-1024x404.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image245-768x303.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image245-65x26.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image245-225x89.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image245-350x138.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1429px) 100vw, 1429px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1780\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Erotes harvesting grapes (detail),\u00a0Sarcophagus representing a Dionysiac Vintage Festival, 290\u2013300 C.E., marble (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.getty.edu\/art\/collection\/object\/109CTJ\">Getty, Los Angeles<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>While the\u00a0proportions are far from the standards of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/classic-classical-and-classicism-explained-2\/\">classical art<\/a>, the style of the relief, especially with the rich folds of drapery and soft facial features, can be seen as classic or alluding to the classical style. Comparably the division of the relief into different registers and further subdivided by an architectural framework alludes to the orderly disposition of classical art. This choice of a style that alludes to classical art was undoubtedly intentional. The art of the period is marked by a number of competing styles. Just as\u00a0rhetoricians\u00a0were taught at this period to adjust their oratorical style to the intended audience, the choice of the classical style was seen as an indication of the high social status of the patron, Junius Bassus. In a similar way, the representation of the figures in togas was intentional. In Roman art, the toga was traditionally used as a symbol of high social status.<\/p>\n<p>In both its style and iconography, the Junius Bassus Sarcophagus witnesses the adoption of the tradition of Greek and Roman art by Christian artists. Works like this were appealing to patrons like Junius Bassus who were a part of the upper level of Roman society. Christian art did not reject the classical tradition: rather, the classical tradition will be a reoccurring element in Christian art throughout the Middle Ages.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"the-mausoleum-of-galla-placidia-ravenna\">The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, Ravenna<\/h2>\n<p>An unassuming brick exterior belies the luminous early medieval mosaics within this mausoleum located in the city of Ravenna, which was once the capital of the Western Roman Empire.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/PdOkCBON9oE?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1759\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1759\" style=\"width: 2560px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/07\/StandardScenes.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1759\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-scaled.jpeg\" alt=\"Mosaic artwork depicting a central Christ with a halo holding a cross staff, surrounded by six white sheep in a pastoral setting with plants and rocks. The scene uses gold, blue, and earth tones, framed by a decorative arch with intricate patterns and symbols.\" width=\"2560\" height=\"1534\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-scaled.jpeg 2560w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-300x180.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-1024x614.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-768x460.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-1536x920.jpeg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-2048x1227.jpeg 2048w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-65x39.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-225x135.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image224-350x210.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2560px) 100vw, 2560px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1759\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>The Good Shepherd<\/em>, The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, 425 C.E., mosaic, Ravenna, Italy (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/e8FGkW\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a> )<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p><em>Christ as the Good Shepherd<\/em> from the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia features the <strong>figurative form<\/strong> of Jesus Christ seated on a natural rock throne surrounded by six sheep. Dressed in the Roman imperial <strong>colors<\/strong> of gold and purple, his body twists to gently touch the underside of a sheep\u2019s chin. He is set in a <strong>naturalistic<\/strong> <strong>pictorial space<\/strong> featuring rocks and greenery. By this point in time, Christianity is the official religion of the Roman Empire. As such, no camouflaged or hidden symbolism is needed as in the Catacomb of Priscilla. His head is surrounded by a golden halo while he holds a cross. Unlike later representations of Christ, he is youthful and beardless. Artists here blended Roman imperial <strong>iconography<\/strong> (colors, halo) with emerging Christian <strong>iconography<\/strong> (sheep, cross). The entire piece is a mosaic made of tesserae, which means this <strong>two-dimensional<\/strong> artwork has a literal <strong>texture<\/strong> to it of rough stone and glass. The artists used <strong>shading<\/strong> with highlights and shadows on the organic <strong>forms<\/strong>, including the sheep and the rocks, to create the illusion of three-dimensional space on the two-dimensional surface. Because gold leaf is baked into some of the glass tesserae, when <strong>light<\/strong> hits the mosaic, it would glimmer and reflect. The piece thus contains the <strong>illusion of light<\/strong> and the actual presence of it. Both <strong>curvilinear<\/strong> and <strong>rectilinear lines<\/strong> are used to create the <strong>contour lines<\/strong> for the forms of figures and natural elements. <strong>Implied lines<\/strong> from the sheep lead the viewer\u2019s eye directly to Christ, who is seated at the center of the <strong>composition<\/strong>. Using light and shadow, overlapping, and variations in spatial proportions, the artists achieved a convincing sense of three-dimensional <strong>space<\/strong>.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-10\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n<p>The development of early Christian art was rooted in the Classical world of Ancient Greece and Rome. As Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire under the Emperor Theodosius, Christian art and architecture became increasingly associated with imperial iconography. Even the image of Christ transformed. The earliest representations of Christ, such as the <em>Good Shepherd<\/em> statues and catacomb paintings with their Roman-inspired design, gave way to an imperial-looking Christ with clear symbolism of power and authority. Already by the 5<sup>th<\/sup> century C.E., <em>Christ as the Good Shepherd<\/em> mosaic in the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia began to show changing ideas of Christ\u2019s representation. The iconography of Christian imagery will develop in distinct styles divided between East and West. As the Western Roman Empire falls in 476 C.E., Western Europe enters the Middle Ages.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-10\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\n<p>The following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and are licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\n<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\n<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\n<li>Conclusion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris, Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Nancy Ross, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/christianity-an-introduction\/\">Christianity, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Allen Farber, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-christianity-an-introduction\/\">Early Christianity, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Allen Farber, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-christian-art\/\">Early Christian art<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/catacomb-of-priscilla-rome\/\">Catacomb of Priscilla, Rome<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 16, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-good-shepherd-in-early-christianity\/\">The Good Shepherd in Early Christianity<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, July 29, 2020.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Allen Farber, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/early-christian-art-and-architecture-after-constantine\/\">Early Christian art and architecture after Constantine<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Jennifer Awes Freeman, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/architecture-and-liturgy\/\">Architecture and liturgy<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/st-peters-basilica\/\">Saint Peter\u2019s Basilica<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Allen Farber, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/sarcophagus-of-junius-bassus\/\">Sarcophagus of Junius Bassus<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 16, 2023.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-mausoleum-of-galla-placidia\/\">The Mausoleum of Galla Placidia<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 12, 2025.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-1781-1\">There are also nontrinitian Christians. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1781-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":2,"menu_order":13,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1781","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1781","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1781\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1993,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1781\/revisions\/1993"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1781\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1781"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1781"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1781"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1781"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}