{"id":1689,"date":"2026-07-16T17:29:58","date_gmt":"2026-07-16T17:29:58","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/chapter\/late-classical-and-hellenistic-greece\/"},"modified":"2026-07-27T17:25:28","modified_gmt":"2026-07-27T17:25:28","slug":"late-classical-and-hellenistic-greece","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/chapter\/late-classical-and-hellenistic-greece\/","title":{"raw":"Late Classical and Hellenistic Greece","rendered":"Late Classical and Hellenistic Greece"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-7\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\r\nThe last phases of Ancient Greek history began with the Late Classical period and into the Hellenistic world of Alexander the Great. The first female nude sculpture in Ancient Greek history dates to the Late Classical period:\u00a0<em>Aphrodite of Knidos<\/em>. In the Hellenistic period, new stylistic elements appeared for the first time, including drama and the depiction of emotion.\r\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-7\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>Capitoline Venus<\/em>, 2nd century C.E., marble, Roman copy of the <em>Aphrodite of Knidos<\/em>, a 4th century B.C.E. Greek original by Praxiteles<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Portrait of Alexander the Great<\/em> (the so-called Azara Alexander), Roman marble copy of a Greek original, c. 1\u201350 C.E.<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Nike (Winged Victory) of Samothrace<\/em>, Lartos marble (ship) and Parian marble (figure), c. 190 B.C.E., Hellenistic Period<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>The Pergamon Altar<\/em>, c. 200-150 B.C.E., Hellenistic Period<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em>, early 1st century C.E., marble<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 id=\"term-list-7\">Term List<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Late Classical Period<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Peloponnesian War<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Pudica<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Aphrodite<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Modest Venus<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Hellenistic Period<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Alexander the Great<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Anastole<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2 id=\"late-classical-period\">Late Classical Period<\/h2>\r\nDuring the Classical Period, Athens, Sparta, and their mutual allies were embroiled in the Peloponnesian War, a bitter conflict that lasted for several decades and ended in 404 B.C.E. Despite continued military activity throughout the \u201cLate Classical Period\u201d (400\u2013323 B.C.E.), artistic production and development continued apace. In addition to a new figural aesthetic in the fourth century known for its longer torsos and limbs, and smaller heads (for example, the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/c2.staticflickr.com\/6\/5751\/22758899217_01bc5b5b41_c.jpg\"><em>Apoxyomenos<\/em><\/a>), the first female nude was produced. Known as the\u00a0<em>Aphrodite of Knidos,<\/em>\u00a0c. 350 B.C.E., the sculpture pivots at the shoulders and hips into an S-Curve and stands with her right hand over her genitals in a\u00a0<em>pudica<\/em> (or modest Venus) pose. Exhibited in a circular temple and visible from all sides, the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/capitoline-venus-copy-of-the-aphrodite-of-knidos\/\"><em>Aphrodite of Knidos<\/em><\/a>\u00a0became one of the most celebrated sculptures in all of antiquity.\r\n<h2 id=\"capitoline-venus-copy-of-the-aphrodite-of-knidos\">Capitoline Venus (copy of the Aphrodite of Knidos)<\/h2>\r\nAphrodite, goddess of love and beauty, emerges from her bath, but what did her nudity mean to the Greeks?\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=nI07zaDpnJU\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1672\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1193\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1672\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image145.jpeg\" alt=\"Capitoline Venus three-dimensional sculpture in white marble showing female figure in contrapposto stance next to a water vessel covered by a cloth. The figure is attempting to cover her private areas while looking to the side. \" width=\"1193\" height=\"1894\" \/> <em>Capitoline Venus<\/em>, 2nd century C.E., marble, 193 cm (Capitoline Museums, Rome) (Roman copy of the Aphrodite of Knidos, a 4th century B.C.E. Greek original by Praxiteles) (Photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Capitoline_Venus_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg\">Jos\u00e9 Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\n<em>Aphrodite of Knidos<\/em> was the first female nude sculpture from Ancient Greece. The sculpture began the tradition of the female nude in Western art. Despite the shock of the new, Praxiteles worked with existing visual arts traditions. Like other marble sculptures from the Ancient Greek world, the <em>Aphrodite of Knidos<\/em> would have been painted in vibrant natural <strong>colors<\/strong>. Aphrodite also stands in the <strong>contrapposto<\/strong> stance for the <strong>composition<\/strong>. Her right leg is relaxed, and her left leg is engaged. Unlike the heroic nudity of male sculptures, however, Praxiteles overlaps Aphrodite\u2019s arms in front of her body: the right arm creates a 90-degree angle with the <strong>horizontal line<\/strong> of her arm just below her breasts. Her left arm angles <strong>diagonally<\/strong> toward her genital region. While the composition gives the appearance of modesty, it is a false modesty. The positioning of the arms only draws more attention to certain features of Aphrodite\u2019s <strong>figurative form<\/strong>. The <strong>composition<\/strong> also holds more visual weight on the right hand-side of the sculpture. Next to Aphrodite sits a bathing urn for water and a cloak. Praxiteles refers to Aphrodite\u2019s origin story: she is created fully formed carried on the waves of the sea. The <strong>iconography<\/strong> or symbolism Praxiteles gives, including the cloak to indicate the viewer has interrupted a private moment for Aphrodite at the bath, provides greater context and a reminder that the piece was originally intended as a religious sculpture and placed in an open-air, circular shrine.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"the-hellenistic-period-and-beyond-323-b.c.e.31-b.c.e.\">The Hellenistic Period and Beyond (323 B.C.E.\u201331 B.C.E.)<\/h2>\r\nFollowing the death of\u00a0Alexander the Great\u00a0in 323 B.C.E., the Greeks and their influence stretched as far east as modern India. While some pieces intentionally mimicked the Classical style of the previous period such as Eutychides\u2019\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b8\/Tyche_Antioch_Vatican_Inv2672.jpg\">Tyche of Antioche<\/a>\u00a0<\/em>(Louvre),\u00a0other artists were more interested in capturing motion and emotion. For example, on the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-pergamon-altar\/\">Great Altar of Zeus from Pergamon<\/a>\u00a0(below) expressions of agony and a confused\u00a0mass of limbs convey\u00a0a newfound interest in drama. Architecturally, the scale of structures vastly increased, as can be seen with the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f1\/Temple_of_Apollo,_Didyma_02.jpg\">Temple of Apollo at Didyma<\/a>, and some complexes even terraced their surrounding landscape in order to create spectacular vistas as can be seen at the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/ae\/Kos_Asklepeion.jpg\">Sanctuary of Asklepios on Kos<\/a>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1673\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/perg.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1673\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image146.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed photograph of Athena defeats Alkyoneus (detail), The Pergamon Altar stone relief sculpture depicting mythological figures in dynamic poses with flowing garments and wings. The relief features intricate carvings of muscular human forms, serpents, and draped fabric, highlighting artistic craftsmanship and storytelling from classical antiquity.\" width=\"870\" height=\"505\" \/><\/a> Athena defeats Alkyoneus (detail), <em>The Pergamon Altar<\/em>, c. 200\u2013150 B.C.E. (Hellenistic Period), 35.64 x 33.4 meters, marble (Pergamon Museum, Berlin, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pergamonmuseum_-_Antikensammlung_-_Pergamonaltar_13.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"alexander-the-great\">Alexander the Great<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1674\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1430\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1674\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image147.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of an ancient marble relief sculpture depicting a dynamic battle scene with warriors, horses, and a fallen animal. The relief features detailed carvings of figures in motion, including a mounted soldier wielding a weapon, a shield-bearing warrior, and a charging bull, all framed by decorative borders.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"869\" \/> Alexander the Great (mounted figure at left) from\u00a0The Alexander Sarcophagus, c. 312 B.C.E. (found in Sidon), Pentelic marble and polychromy, 195 x 318 x 167 cm (\u0130stanbul Archaeological Museums, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Battle_of_Issos_won_by_Alexander_the_Great.jpg\">Yair-haklai<\/a> - Own work, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>),[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn 336 B.C.E. a young man named Alexander inherited control of a kingdom called Macedon in the area of modern day Greece. Alexander had military experience but was only 20 years old when his father was assassinated, leaving him in control of a large swath of land at a young age. [footnote]Andrew Stewart,\u00a0<em>Art in the Hellenistic Age: An Introduction\u00a0<\/em>(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), p. 8.[\/footnote] Over the next 13 years, Alexander aggressively expanded his territory. By the time he died in 323 B.C.E., his territory stretched all the way to modern day India. [footnote]Richard Neer,\u00a0<em>Art &amp; Archaeology of the Greek World,\u00a0<\/em>2nd edition (London: Thames and Hudson, 2019), p. 351.[\/footnote] His Macedonian Empire was one of the largest empires that ever existed. [footnote]Stewart (2014), p. 8.[\/footnote] It is one of the reasons that Alexander is today known as Alexander the Great.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1675\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/MacedonEmpire.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1675\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image148.jpeg\" alt=\"Map illustrating the empire of Alexander the Great from 336 to 323 BCE, highlighting key cities, routes taken by Alexander, and battle sites. The map uses color gradients to show terrain elevation and includes labeled regions across Europe, Asia, and Africa, emphasizing the vast extent of Alexander's conquests.\" width=\"870\" height=\"416\" \/><\/a> Map of Alexander the Great\u2019s conquests, c. 338\u2013328 B.C.E. (map:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:MacedonEmpire.jpg\">Generic Mapping Tools<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe short and violent life of the\u00a0Macedonian\u00a0king Alexander the Great offers a useful case study in war\u2019s repercussions for cultural heritage. As he fought his way through the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/persian-art-an-introduction\/\">Persian Empire<\/a>\u00a0in the late 4th century B.C.E., Alexander the Great famously destroyed monuments, such as the palace of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/persepolis-the-audience-hall-of-darius-and-xerxes\/\">Persepolis<\/a>, an important political and administrative center in present-day Iran. At the same time, his conquest of the rich and powerful ancient kingdom of the\u00a0Achaemenids\u00a0also encouraged the creation of new works of art, for example,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/portraits-alexander-the-great\/\">portraits of Alexander<\/a>\u00a0by the celebrated artists Lysippos and Apelles. And in his later years, Alexander became an increasingly significant rebuilder of monuments like the ziggurat of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-babylon-excavations-restorations-and-modern-tourism\/\">Babylon<\/a>, better known as the Biblical Tower of Babel.\r\n\r\nAlexander\u2019s destruction, creation, and rebuilding of monuments illuminates ancient attitudes and practices toward cultural heritage in wartime. His actions suggest an ideal of protecting monuments during war, yet Alexander also used symbolic violence toward cultural heritage as a military and political strategy to demonstrate his absolute power and highlight the dangers of resistance. This has important repercussions for our understanding of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/frameworks-cultural-heritage\/\">ancient concepts of the protection of cultural heritage<\/a>\u00a0in wartime: an issue of critical importance in Alexander\u2019s era, and one that remains highly relevant today.\r\n<h2 id=\"portraits-of-alexander-the-great\">Portraits of Alexander the Great<\/h2>\r\nAlexander the Great ruled his empire long before modern media existed. He could not give televised speeches, nor could he circulate his image and ideas in newspapers. Very few people who lived under his rule ever saw him in person. Instead, Alexander was known to many through his\u00a0portraits. Ancient authors suggest that Alexander the Great was well aware of the importance of his portraits and controlled them carefully. He had a favorite sculptor, Lysippos, whom he gave special permission to design his sculpted portraits. [footnote]Pliny,\u00a0<em>Natural History<\/em>, 7.12.[\/footnote] While no original portrait of Alexander made by Lysippos survives, many copies of his work exist, as do other versions of Alexander\u2019s portraits. Examining these copies can help us understand what is innovative about Alexander the Great\u2019s portraits and how they were crafted to convey a certain message about the ruler to viewers.\r\n\r\nBefore we look at some of these portraits, we must consider two issues that complicate our study of them. The first is the difference between a portrait and a likeness. Although a portrait is a representation of an individual, it is not necessarily a likeness of that individual, meaning that it does not have to depict the individual as they actually appear. Portraits can remove flaws and exaggerate good features, resulting in\u00a0idealized\u00a0images. Of course, we have no photographs of Alexander the Great, so it is difficult to determine what he really looked like, but written sources suggest that he was idealized in his portraits. [footnote]Andrew Stewart,\u00a0\u00a0<em>Faces of Power: Alexander\u2019s Image and Hellenistic Politics\u00a0<\/em>(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), p. 73.[\/footnote] Alexander the Great and the artists who worked for him were less interested in conveying his exact likeness and more interested in creating portraits that presented him as a capable young ruler.\r\n\r\nThe second major issue that complicates our understanding of portraits of Alexander the Great is the lack of surviving originals. Most portraits that have been identified as depicting Alexander were probably made long after his death. [footnote]R. R. R. Smith,\u00a0<em>Hellenistic Sculpture: a Handbook\u00a0<\/em>(London: Thames &amp; Hudson, 1991), p. 21.[\/footnote] Some might be copies of famous portraits by important artists like Lysippos, but this is difficult to determine because we can\u2019t compare them to surviving originals. Scholars often rely on literary descriptions of Alexander and his images to identify his portraits. These portraits share some distinctive characteristics that are also mentioned in the written sources. By looking closely at a few of these sculptures we can become more familiar with the defining characteristics of Alexander the Great\u2019s portraits.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-heads-of-alexander\">The heads of Alexander<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1676\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/azara-herm.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1676\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image149.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Portrait of Alexander the Great marble bust with face, featuring curly hair and a rectangular base inscribed with worn Latin text. \" width=\"870\" height=\"1413\" \/><\/a> Portrait of Alexander the Great (the so-called Azara Alexander), Roman marble copy of a Greek original, c. 1\u201350 C.E., 68 x 32 x 27 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/collections.louvre.fr\/en\/ark:\/53355\/cl010277962\">Mus\u00e9e du Louvre<\/a>, Paris, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOne portrait of Alexander the Great is today known as the Azara Alexander because it was once owned by a man whose last name was Azara. The bottom of this portrait bust is inscribed with Alexander the Great\u2019s name, allowing us to securely identify him. However, we know that this is not a Greek original because the Greeks didn\u2019t make portrait busts. Romans invented portrait busts, which only show the heads (and sometimes shoulders) of an individual. [footnote]John Boardman,\u00a0<em>Greek Sculpture: the Late Classical Period\u00a0<\/em>(London: Thames and Hudson, 1995), p. 103.[\/footnote] The Roman artist who made the Azara Alexander attached the portrait head to a block-like bust that carries the identifying inscription. Some scholars believe this is a Roman copy of an original Greek portrait of Alexander by Lysippos. [footnote]Brunilde Ridgway,\u00a0<em>Hellenistic Sculpture I: The Styles of ca. 331\u2013200 B.C.\u00a0<\/em>(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), p. 123 argues this is not a copy of an image by Lysippos.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\nMany of the distinctive characteristics of Alexander the Great\u2019s portraits are visible here. First, Alexander is shown without a beard. Prior to Alexander\u2019s rule, Greek men were typically shown with beards, which signaled their maturity and adulthood. By appearing without a beard, Alexander the Great broke with tradition and emphasized his youthfulness. [footnote]Ariel Herrmann, \u201cArt in the Age of Alexander,\u201d\u00a0<em>Pergamon and the Hellenistic Kingdoms of the Ancient World<\/em>, exhibition catalogue, edited by Carlos A. Pic\u00f3n and Se\u00e1n Hemingway (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2016), p. 13.[\/footnote] Many kings that succeeded Alexander imitated his beardlessness in their own portraits.\r\n\r\nAnother defining trait of Alexander the Great is his hairstyle. The two locks of hair at the center of his forehead stand straight up and are parted slightly off center in a style that is called anastole. His hair is thick, with many long, wavy pieces. Ancient authors describe Alexander the Great as being lion-like in personality, and in his portraits, his leonine nature is expressed through his hairstyle: in its fullness and wildness, his hair recalls a lion\u2019s mane. [footnote]Julius Valerius,\u00a0<em>Res gestae Alexandri Macedonia<\/em>,\u00a01.7.[\/footnote] Alexander\u2019s hairstyle thus makes him more easily recognizable and conveys his lion-like fierceness.\r\n\r\nAdditional features typical of Alexander\u2019s portraits are present in the Azara Alexander. The head turns slightly, adding a liveliness to the image, as if Alexander is engaged and responsive. The head also has a far off gaze, which is sometimes described as \u201cmelting\u201d and was apparently a real physical trait of Alexander. [footnote]Andrew Stewart,\u00a0<em>Art, Desire and the Body in Ancient Greece\u00a0<\/em>(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 209.[\/footnote] Ancient authors mention all four of these traits (beardlessness, anastole of leonine hair, turning head, and melting gaze) in their written descriptions of Lysippos\u2019s portraits of Alexander, supporting the idea that this may be a Roman copy of a Greek sculpture by Lysippos. [footnote]Iphigeneia Leventi, \u201cThe Great Masters of the Fourth Century,\u201d\u00a0<em>Handbook of Greek Sculpture<\/em>, edited by Olga Palagia (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2019), p. 386. One ancient source that addresses this topic is Plutarch,\u00a0<em>Moralia\u00a0<\/em>335A-B.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1677\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/munich-alexander.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1677\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image150.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of Portrait of Alexander the Great marble bust sculpture depicting a Alexander the Great with curly hair, shown from the front against a black background. The bust includes detailed hair texture and a partial neck.\" width=\"870\" height=\"621\" \/><\/a> Portrait of Alexander the Great (the so-called Alexander Schwarzenberg), Roman marble copy of a Greek original, c. 20 B.C.E.\u201320 C.E., 35.5 cm high (Glyptothek, Munich; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Alexander_Schwarzenberg_Glyptothek_Munich.jpg\">public domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOther surviving portrait heads of Alexander the Great also have these defining traits. One head of Alexander that is now in Munich has also been recognized as a Roman copy of a Greek original by Lysippos. Alexander is beardless, with the typical anastole and leonine hair. His head turns towards the right, engaging the muscles in his neck, and his deep set eyes seem to gaze off into the faraway distance. [footnote]Florian S. Knauss, \u201cCat. No. 7: Portrait of Alexander the Great (The Alexander Schwarzenberg),\u201d\u00a0<em>Pergamon and the Hellenistic Kingdoms of the Ancient World<\/em>, exhibition catalogue, edited by Carlos A. Pic\u00f3n and Se\u00e1n Hemingway (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2016), p. 108.[\/footnote] While we can\u2019t be totally sure that this Roman statue is imitating a Greek sculpture by Lysippos, we can identify it as a portrait of Alexander.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-body-of-alexander\">The body of Alexander<\/h3>\r\nWe have learned to recognize Alexander the Great based on his distinctive features. But during his lifetime his sculpted portraits depicted his entire body, not just his head. To get a sense of how the rest of Alexander was depicted, we must once again turn to Roman copies of Greek statues.\r\n\r\nOne such Roman statue, <a href=\"https:\/\/harvardartmuseums.org\/collections\/object\/312306\">Alexander the Great (the so-called Nelidow Alexander<\/a>), is recognizable as Alexander because of its leonine hair with anastole, beardlessness, and faraway gaze. Here we find the king in the nude. He once held a spear in his left hand, planting it into the ground to indicate he is in control of the land upon which he stands. Alexander poses almost casually, showcasing his perfected musculature. His idealized body emulates the ideal that was developed by Greek sculptors during the\u00a0High Classical period. [footnote]Stewart (1997), p. 208.[\/footnote] Alexander was a great fan of Greek culture and believed himself to be descended from the Greek heroes Herakles and Achilles. Indeed, in this portrait, he is so idealized that he looks like a Greek hero. Despite this he is still recognizable as Alexander because of his face and hair. Through the idealization of the nude body, this portrait exaggerates the physical prowess and power of the real ruler it represents.\r\n<h3 id=\"an-unconventional-alexander\">An unconventional Alexander<\/h3>\r\nAll of Alexander\u2019s portraits were carefully crafted to convey that he was a worthy leader, but a few of them broke with the conventional format defined above to show him in a more local style. These representations are still designed to prove his legitimacy to rule, but because they are doing this for a different audience, they look different than typical portraits of Alexander. For example, sometime after Alexander conquered northern Egypt, he made additions to a centuries-old\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/temple-of-amun-re-and-the-hypostyle-hall-karnak\/\">temple at Karnak<\/a>\u00a0to simultaneously demonstrate his respect for the Egyptian gods and his power. The chapel he commissioned was decorated with dozens of reliefs that show him worshiping the Egyptian gods.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1678\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/karnak-alexander.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1678\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image151.jpeg\" alt=\"Bas-relief carving depicting two ancient Egyptian figures facing each other, one of which is Alexander the Great, surrounded by hieroglyphic inscriptions. One figure wears a tall crown and holds a staff.\" width=\"870\" height=\"621\" \/><\/a> Alexander the Great from the Luxor Temple, Karnak, Egypt, c. 325 B.C.E., sandstone, 1.4 m high (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Luxor-Tempel_Alexandersanktuar_13.jpg\">Olaf Tausch<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn this example, we see Alexander on the right approaching a god. He has neither leonine hair nor anastole, and his faraway gaze is gone. Instead, he is represented in a highly conventional Egyptian manner. [footnote]Stewart (2014), p. 50.[\/footnote] He wears an Egyptian kilt and headdress, while his body is shown in composite view, with his chest frontal and his head, arms, and legs in profile. His idealized musculature matches that of the god he faces. In fact, Alexander looks so much like other Egyptian rulers in this image that we can only be sure this is him because he is accompanied by\u00a0hieroglyphs\u00a0that spell out his name. Alexander has adapted the imagery of local Egyptian rulers in this temple so that he would be more easily recognizable as a leader to the Egyptians who visited this holy structure.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-legacy-of-alexanders-portraits\">The legacy of Alexander\u2019s portraits<\/h3>\r\nAlexander the Great\u2019s portraits were designed to portray him as an effective ruler. The goal of these portraits was not to represent Alexander exactly as he appeared, but to highlight his best traits and convey his strength to all who saw them. Certain physical characteristics make Alexander identifiable to us even today, including his clean shaven face, his long curling hair and anastole, and his faraway gaze. These same traits would have also enabled ancient viewers throughout his empire to recognize him. Occasionally Alexander\u2019s portraits conform to a different ideal so that they can clearly express his power to a different audience, but even then, their goal is to make him recognizable as a leader.\r\n\r\nThe Macedonian Empire fractured into several different kingdoms soon after Alexander\u2019s death in 323 B.C.E. Many of the leaders of these\u00a0Hellenistic\u00a0kingdoms continued to make portraits of Alexander, honoring him long after his death. These leaders believed that Alexander became a god after he died, so he sometimes acquired new characteristics that suggest his divinity in these later portraits, even while retaining his typical traits.\r\n\r\nFor example, in a portrait of Alexander on a coin made in Thrace after his death, Alexander wears a royal\u00a0diadem. He also has ram\u2019s horns sprouting from his head, which show he is descended from the Egyptian ram-god: the horns show Alexander\u2019s godliness. [footnote]Stewart (2014), p. 53.[\/footnote] Despite these new features, Alexander is still recognizable because he is beardless and has his distinctive anastole and curls. The same kings who added such portraits of the\u00a0deified\u00a0Alexander to their coins also emulated Alexander in their own portraits, often representing themselves without beards. Alexander the Great\u2019s influential portraits thus lived long after he did, on Hellenistic coins, in Roman copies, and in many other ways.\r\n<h2 id=\"nike-winged-victory-of-samothrace\">Nike (Winged Victory) of Samothrace<\/h2>\r\nOn the island of Samothrace, the wind whipped the clothing of this stone goddess of victory.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=PjI0hAr0Vo0\r\n<h2 id=\"the-pergamon-altar\">The Pergamon Altar<\/h2>\r\n<h3 id=\"the-battle-between-the-gods-and-giants\">The battle between the gods and giants<\/h3>\r\nThe ancient\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-greece-an-introduction\/\">Greeks<\/a>\u00a0represented the mythological battle between the Olympian gods and the giants in a wide variety of media\u2014from miniature engraved gemstones and vase paintings, to over-life-sized architectural sculptures.\r\n\r\nPerhaps the most famous and well-preserved of these decorates the Pergamon Altar. The\u00a0Altar\u00a0once stood in a sacred precinct on the\u00a0acropolis\u00a0of the ancient city of Pergamon (on the west coast of modern-day Turkey), which was ruled by the Attalid dynasty from 282\u2013133 B.C.E.\r\n\r\nIn comparison to other Hellenistic kingdoms (kingdoms formed after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.E. and stretching from the eastern Mediterranean to Central Asia), Pergamon emerged relatively late on the scene. Monumental building projects\u2014including the Altar\u2014served as an important way for the Attalids to stake their claim as legitimate\u00a0inheritors of Alexander\u2019s empire and, by extension, the legacy of Classical Greece.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=L3SIooVHV8E\r\n<h2 id=\"athanadoros-hagesandros-and-polydoros-of-rhodes-laoco\u00f6n-and-his-sons\">Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em><\/h2>\r\nThe writhing agony of the Trojan Laoco\u00f6n made this Hellenistic sculpture famous throughout history.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RUdXVrE-QNE\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1679\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Laocoo%CC%88n-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1679\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-1.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of the Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons marble sculpture depicting three muscular male figures struggling with large serpents. The sculpture highlights intricate details of anatomy, expressions of pain and struggle, and dynamic composition within a niche setting.\" width=\"870\" height=\"521\" \/><\/a> Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,<em>\u00a0Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em>, early 1st century C.E., marble, 7 feet 10 1\/2 inches high (Vatican Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jdLrzT\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe sculptural group known today as the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>or\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em>\u00a0has been both one of the most influential ancient\u00a0artworks in the history of art and one of the most fiercely debated. It has been copied by countless artists, and numerous books have been written about it, yet there is still little scholarly consensus about the circumstances of its creation.\r\n\r\nThe statue was discovered in 1506 on the Esquiline Hill in Rome by a farmer working in his vineyard.\u00a0The\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>was only one of a number of ancient artworks that had been abandoned, forgotten, and eventually buried under later buildings and streets. During the Renaissance, a number of these artworks were rediscovered, either accidentally during construction projects or purposefully by people hunting for the artworks which had become greatly admired. One of the first people to see the statue was\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/europe-1300-1800\/italy-16th-century\/michelangelo\/\">Michelangelo<\/a>, who was sent by the pope, Julius II, along with architect Guiliano da Sangallo, to inspect the statue after its excavation. Julius, like many of his 16th-century Italian contemporaries, was a connoisseur and collector of ancient Greek and Roman art. He purchased the statue, and it has remained in the collection of the Vatican ever since.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1680\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/02\/51883453175_a9c03ca58d_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1680\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image152.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of a Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons sculpture depicting a muscular man struggling with a large serpent, showcasing intricate details of human anatomy and intense facial expression. The detail of the sculpture features two figures entwined with serpents, highlighting dynamic movement and dramatic tension.\" width=\"870\" height=\"489\" \/><\/a> Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em>, early 1st century C.E., marble, 7 feet 10 1\/2 inches high (Vatican Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2n3Lg38\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nMost likely dating to the 1st century B.C.E. or 1st century C.E., the statue is made of six blocks of Greek Parian marble. It is over-life sized, at a height of 6\u2019 8\u201d. The composition depicts the tortuous death of Laoco\u00f6n and his two sons by snakes (read the full story below). All three are nude with clearly defined, exaggerated musculature. Bands of clenched muscles are visible under the skin of\u00a0 Laoco\u00f6n\u2019s torso as he reaches up to fight off the snakes. The statue, like all ancient Greek and Roman marble sculptures, would have been painted originally. The bright green of the twisting snakes and the red blood drawn by their bites would have stood out against the tan flesh of Laoco\u00f6n and his sons.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1681\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/02\/51881831967_59de5bb597_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1681\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image153.jpeg\" alt=\"Detail image of Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons depicting a muscular, bearded man with a contorted, anguished expression and detailed curly hair. The sculpture highlights intricate anatomy and emotional intensity, with the figure's arm partially missing, emphasizing its ancient and weathered condition.\" width=\"870\" height=\"489\" \/><\/a> Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons, early 1st century C.E., marble, 7 feet 10 1\/2 inches high (Vatican Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2n3BX7g\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nLaoco\u00f6n is at the center of the composition, sitting in a twisted position on an altar. One snake sinks its teeth into his hip. Laoco\u00f6n throws his head back as he screams in agony. His hair and beard curl in deeply carved locks, contributing to the sculpture\u2019s dramatic tone. Based on surviving paint on his eyes, some scholars have argued that he has been blinded by the bites of the snakes.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1682\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/08\/50028119756_4eb60d4f92_6k-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1682\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image154.jpeg\" alt=\"Side detail view of Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons marble sculpture, depicting three human figures entwined by large serpents. The detailed composition highlights muscular anatomy, expressive faces, and intricate serpent coils, set against a plain background with a carved frieze visible on the left.\" width=\"870\" height=\"489\" \/><\/a> Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,<em>\u00a0Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em>, early 1st century C.E., marble, 7 feet 10 1\/2 inches high (Vatican Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jdPc3U\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nLaoco\u00f6n is flanked by his two teenaged sons. The figure on the left, the younger of the two, has gone limp, and it is likely that he is already dead. The older son, on the right, pulls snake coils off his leg and arm. He turns to look at his father, an expression of horror and confusion on his face. With its emphasis on theatricality and exaggerated realism, it is similar to artworks of the so-called Hellenistic baroque, such as the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/nike-winged-victory-of-samothrace\/\"><em>Nike of Samothrace\u00a0<\/em><\/a>and the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-pergamon-altar\/\">Great Altar at Pergamon<\/a>. While the style is most closely associated with the city of Pergamon and the island Rhodes in the 2nd century B.C.E., Hellenistic baroque had an enduring popularity, and artworks in the style continued to be produced into the Roman Imperial period, with Rome becoming a center of Hellenistic art.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1683\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/08\/5604386389_80952d8483_o.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1683\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image155.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of the Winged Victory of Samothrace, a marble statue of the Greek goddess Nike, displayed on a stone pedestal inside a museum with beige walls and an arched doorway. The statue features detailed drapery and large wings but lacks a head and arms, symbolizing victory and movement.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1160\" \/><\/a> <em>Nike of Samothrace (winged Victory)<\/em>, Lartos marble (ship), Parian marble (figure), c. 190 B.C.E., 3.28 meters high (Louvre, Paris; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/9xeWPx\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"the-story-of-laoco\u00f6n\">The Story of Laoco\u00f6n<\/h3>\r\nThe myth of Laoco\u00f6n dates back to the 7th century B.C.E. It was part of the Epic Cycle, a series of poems that told the story of the Trojan War (Greeks against the city of Troy, in present-day Turkey). Today, only the\u00a0<em>Iliad\u00a0<\/em>and the\u00a0<em>Odyssey\u00a0<\/em>survive, but we have fragments or descriptions of the other volumes. Laoco\u00f6n appeared in the now-lost\u00a0<em>Ilioupersis\u00a0<\/em>(the sack of Troy) by Arktinos of Miletos. Versions of Laoco\u00f6n\u2019s story appeared after that, notably in a now-lost 5th-century B.C.E. play of Sophocles.\r\n\r\nThe version closest chronologically to the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>statue appeared in Roman writer Vergil\u2019s\u00a0<em>Aeneid<\/em>, published in 19 B.C.E. The\u00a0<em>Aeneid<\/em>\u00a0tells the story of the Trojan warrior Aeneas who escapes from Troy during its destruction and makes his way to Italy, where he rules over the Latin people.\u00a0The story of Laoco\u00f6n forms part of book two, which recounts the sack of Troy. The Greeks pretended to give up their siege of Troy with its unbreakable walls, leaving only a large wooden horse as a final offering to the gods. In actuality, some hid out of sight while others hid inside the horse. Only a few Trojans spoke against bringing the horse inside the city. The first was Cassandra, who was blessed with the gift of prophecy, but cursed that no one would ever believe her. The other was Laoco\u00f6n, a priest of Neptune (Greek Poseidon). He warned the Trojans with his now famous line, \u201cI fear the Greeks, even when they bring gifts.\u201d But the gods had decided the Greeks were to win the war, and no one, divine or mortal, can defy fate. So the gods sent a pair of snakes to silence Laoco\u00f6n. They came from the sea, attacking Laoco\u00f6n and his sons while he made a sacrifice. They bit and wrapped themselves around the three, killing first the sons and then Laoco\u00f6n. This is the moment represented in the marble statue.\r\n\r\nTrojan war stories were popular in ancient Rome, especially during the reigns of the Julio-Claudian emperors (27 B.C.E.\u201368 C.E.). The myths connected the Romans back to the ancient and revered past, giving them legitimacy as a cultural and military power through these connections. The Julian family traced their lineage directly back to the Trojan warrior Aeneas, and so actively promoted art and literature like the\u00a0<em>Aeneid\u00a0<\/em>that focused on Troy.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1684\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/08\/Pompeii_Casa_del_Menandro_Laocoon.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1684\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image156.jpeg\" alt=\"A fresco painting depicting a Laoco\u00f6n in a chaotic scene with multiple human figures, including one central figure holding a snake and others seated or lying on the ground. The artwork features muted earth tones, a red border, and elements such as a fallen table, scattered objects, and a reclining animal, suggesting a narrative context.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1124\" \/><\/a> Scene showing Laoco\u00f6n, 1st century C.E., atrium of the House of Menandro, Pompeii (<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pompeii_Casa_del_Menandro_Laocoon.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWhile Laoco\u00f6n was a recurring subject in texts, he was not as popular in art. Images of Laoco\u00f6n have been identified on a few pots made by south Italian Greeks in the 4th century B.C.E., but most of the known images are Roman. Gems dating to the late imperial period as well as two 1st-century C.E. paintings from houses in Pompeii depict the death of Laoco\u00f6n. Artworks are few, however, and the marble statue is the only monumental depiction of the subject to survive.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1685\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/08\/50028119131_9841ed3e2d_6k-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1685\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image157.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of the Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons marble sculpture, depicting a muscular man and his two sons entangled by serpents. The sculpture highlights detailed anatomy, intense expressions, and dynamic poses, set against a stone wall with a carved relief panel.\" width=\"870\" height=\"489\" \/><\/a> Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em>, early 1st century C.E., marble, 7 feet 10 1\/2 inches high (Vatican Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jdPbS8\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"pliny-and-the-laoco\u00f6n\">Pliny and The Laoco\u00f6n<\/h3>\r\nThe\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n<\/em>\u00a0is fairly unusual among surviving ancient artworks because it is described in an ancient text,\u00a0<em>Natural History<\/em>,\u00a0by Pliny the Elder. Most of the famous artworks described by ancient authors have been lost and those artworks that have survived are without ancient textual description.\r\n\r\nPliny, a Roman aristocrat and scholar, published the first volumes of\u00a0<em>The Natural History\u00a0<\/em>in 77 C.E. This encyclopedia was intended to record all known knowledge. In his discussion of famous statues, Pliny describes the Laoco\u00f6n as he saw it in the house of the ancient Roman emperor\u00a0Titus, and attributes it to the artists Hagesandros, Polydoros, and Athenodoros of Rhodes. Pliny praises the statue as superior to all other artworks. Despite some inconsistencies between the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>statue and Pliny\u2019s description, notably the statue is made of multiple blocks of stone rather than a single block as Pliny says, it is widely accepted that the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>in the Vatican is the statue described by Pliny.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1686\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/02\/51882879208_1300434524_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1686\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image158.jpeg\" alt=\"Detail image of one son from Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons marble sculpture, depicting a youthful boy entangled by serpents. The sculpture highlights detailed anatomy, intense expressions, and dynamic poses.\" width=\"870\" height=\"489\" \/><\/a> Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em>, early 1st century C.E., marble, 7 feet 10 1\/2 inches high (Vatican Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2n3Hjq9\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"dating-the-laoco\u00f6n\">Dating the Laoco\u00f6n<\/h3>\r\nThe circumstances surrounding the creation of the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n<\/em>, including its date, have been long debated by scholars. While one scholar proposed that the statue was actually a Renaissance forgery by Michelangelo, this theory has been widely discredited, and most scholars date the statue between 150 B.C.E. and 70 C.E. Each of these proposals examine why a statue in the Hellenistic Greek style was found in Rome, and the role of Romans as patrons and collectors of Greek sculpture.\r\n\r\nThe Romans, especially in the late Republic and early Empire, were\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/how-a-famous-greek-bronze-ended-up-in-the-vatican\/\">active connoisseurs of Greek art<\/a>. As they conquered Greek territories, they imported large numbers of Greek artworks to Italy, removing them from homes, public buildings, and sanctuaries. Romans displayed Greek artworks in their homes and public spaces, many in contexts far removed from their original locations and purposes. These artworks took on new meanings as symbols of the wealth and education of their owners. The Romans also commissioned copies of famous statues as well as new compositions inspired by Greek originals. Rome became a center of Hellenistic art as Greek artists moved to Italy to work for wealthy Romans.\r\n\r\nTheories that posit the earliest date for the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>propose that, based on stylistic similarities, the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n<\/em>\u00a0is contemporary to the 2nd-century B.C.E.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-pergamon-altar\/\">Great Altar at Pergamon<\/a>\u00a0and that it was made in the Greek island of Rhodes before being exported to Rome. Other scholars propose that the marble statue found in Rome was a copy of an earlier 2nd-century Greek original. Most writers, however, argue that the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>was made in Rome for Roman patrons.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1687\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"516\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/03\/Carole-Raddato-3-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1687\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image159.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of an ancient marble relief sculpture depicting mythological figures in dynamic poses, including a central kneeling male figure and two standing figures on either side. The relief features intricate drapery, muscular details, and sea creatures at the base, with labels &quot;NEREUS&quot; and &quot;OKEANOS&quot; identifying the figures.\" width=\"516\" height=\"378\" \/><\/a> North side of grand staircase, Pergamon Altar (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/CSDnVV\">Carole Raddato<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nSupport for a Roman context for the creation of the statue comes from the site of Sperlonga, located between Rome and Naples. Here, the emperor\u00a0Tiberius\u00a0had a\u00a0grotto\u00a0for dining and entertainment decorated with monumental marble statues. The statues are over-life sized and depict scenes from the Trojan war or the life of Odysseus. They are in the same dramatic, hyper-realistic style as the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n<\/em>, and an artist\u2019s signature was found on the sculptural group that depicted Odysseus\u2019 run-in with the sea monster, Skylla attributing the statues to Hagesandros, Athenadoros, and Polydoros of Rhodes\u2014the same artists to whom Pliny attributes the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n<\/em>. Debates over the creation of the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>statue are therefore intertwined with the Sperlonga statues.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1688\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/08\/skylla-sperlonga-copy.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1688\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image160.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of a large, fragmented marble sculpture depicting multiple human figures on a boat, displayed indoors with natural light. The sculpture features dynamic poses and detailed anatomy, with visible cracks and missing parts, highlighting both artistic craftsmanship and signs of aging or damage.\" width=\"870\" height=\"407\" \/><\/a> Part of the Skylla group, 1st century B.C.E.\u20131st century C.E., marble, Sperlonga (left photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/q3gXaw\">Carole Raddato<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>; right photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Athanodoros,_agesandros_e_polydoros,_gruppo_di_scilla,_et%C3%A0_tiberiana,_08.jpg\">Sailko<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nMost recent scholarly discussions have centered on whether the sculptures were made specifically for the grotto and Titus\u2019s palace or whether they were made earlier and moved to these locations. While there is still no definitive consensus, most scholars now place both the Sperlonga statues and the Laoco\u00f6n in the 1st century B.C.E. or 1st century C.E. Their dramatic, Hellenistic style, along with the focus on Trojan war themes place them in line with the concerns of upper-class Roman patrons in these periods.\r\n<h3 id=\"an-unquestionable-legacy\">An unquestionable legacy<\/h3>\r\nFrom Pliny to Michelangelo to modern visitors to the Vatican Museums, the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>statue has made an impact on its viewers. Its dramatic depiction of the agony of Laoco\u00f6n and his\u00a0sons\u00a0forges an emotional connection with its audience. While scholars continue to debate how and when it was created and its ancient context, its legacy is unquestionable.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1679\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Laocoo%CC%88n-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1679\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-1.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of the Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons marble sculpture depicting three muscular male figures struggling with large serpents. The sculpture highlights intricate details of anatomy, expressions of pain and struggle, and dynamic composition within a niche setting.\" width=\"870\" height=\"521\" \/><\/a> Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em>, early 1st century C.E., marble, 7 feet 10 1\/2 inches high (Vatican Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jdLrzT\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-7\">Conclusion<\/h2>\r\nCleopatra was defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E. by the future Roman Emperor Augustus (Octavian). Upon her defeat, the\u00a0Ptolemaic dynasty that ruled Egypt and, simultaneously, the Hellenistic Period ended. With the Roman admiration of and predilection for Greek art and culture, however, Classical aesthetics and teachings continued to endure from antiquity to the modern era.\r\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-7\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\r\nThe following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and are licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Renee M. Gondek, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek_intro\/\">Introduction to ancient Greek art<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 14, 2016.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/capitoline-venus-copy-of-the-aphrodite-of-knidos\/\">Capitoline Venus (copy of the Aphrodite of Knidos)<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, April 5, 2016.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Rachel Kousser, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/alexander-the-great\/\">Alexander the Great: destroyer, creator, rebuilder<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, April 10, 2025.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Monica Bulger, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/portraits-alexander-the-great\/\">Portraits of Alexander the Great<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, October 15, 2024.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Amanda Herring, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/nike-winged-victory-of-samothrace\/\"><em>Nike (Winged Victory) of Samothrace<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 11, 2021.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Karin E. Christiaens, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-pergamon-altar\/\">The Pergamon Altar<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, April 1, 2021.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Amanda Herring, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/athanadoros-hagesandros-and-polydoros-of-rhodes-laocoon-and-his-sons\/\">Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, March 24, 2026.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-7\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\n<p>The last phases of Ancient Greek history began with the Late Classical period and into the Hellenistic world of Alexander the Great. The first female nude sculpture in Ancient Greek history dates to the Late Classical period:\u00a0<em>Aphrodite of Knidos<\/em>. In the Hellenistic period, new stylistic elements appeared for the first time, including drama and the depiction of emotion.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-7\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Capitoline Venus<\/em>, 2nd century C.E., marble, Roman copy of the <em>Aphrodite of Knidos<\/em>, a 4th century B.C.E. Greek original by Praxiteles<\/li>\n<li><em>Portrait of Alexander the Great<\/em> (the so-called Azara Alexander), Roman marble copy of a Greek original, c. 1\u201350 C.E.<\/li>\n<li><em>Nike (Winged Victory) of Samothrace<\/em>, Lartos marble (ship) and Parian marble (figure), c. 190 B.C.E., Hellenistic Period<\/li>\n<li><em>The Pergamon Altar<\/em>, c. 200-150 B.C.E., Hellenistic Period<\/li>\n<li>Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em>, early 1st century C.E., marble<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"term-list-7\">Term List<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Late Classical Period<\/li>\n<li>Peloponnesian War<\/li>\n<li><em>Pudica<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Aphrodite<\/li>\n<li>Modest Venus<\/li>\n<li>Hellenistic Period<\/li>\n<li>Alexander the Great<\/li>\n<li>Anastole<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"late-classical-period\">Late Classical Period<\/h2>\n<p>During the Classical Period, Athens, Sparta, and their mutual allies were embroiled in the Peloponnesian War, a bitter conflict that lasted for several decades and ended in 404 B.C.E. Despite continued military activity throughout the \u201cLate Classical Period\u201d (400\u2013323 B.C.E.), artistic production and development continued apace. In addition to a new figural aesthetic in the fourth century known for its longer torsos and limbs, and smaller heads (for example, the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/c2.staticflickr.com\/6\/5751\/22758899217_01bc5b5b41_c.jpg\"><em>Apoxyomenos<\/em><\/a>), the first female nude was produced. Known as the\u00a0<em>Aphrodite of Knidos,<\/em>\u00a0c. 350 B.C.E., the sculpture pivots at the shoulders and hips into an S-Curve and stands with her right hand over her genitals in a\u00a0<em>pudica<\/em> (or modest Venus) pose. Exhibited in a circular temple and visible from all sides, the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/capitoline-venus-copy-of-the-aphrodite-of-knidos\/\"><em>Aphrodite of Knidos<\/em><\/a>\u00a0became one of the most celebrated sculptures in all of antiquity.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"capitoline-venus-copy-of-the-aphrodite-of-knidos\">Capitoline Venus (copy of the Aphrodite of Knidos)<\/h2>\n<p>Aphrodite, goddess of love and beauty, emerges from her bath, but what did her nudity mean to the Greeks?<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Capitoline Venus\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/nI07zaDpnJU?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1672\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1672\" style=\"width: 1193px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1672\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image145.jpeg\" alt=\"Capitoline Venus three-dimensional sculpture in white marble showing female figure in contrapposto stance next to a water vessel covered by a cloth. The figure is attempting to cover her private areas while looking to the side.\" width=\"1193\" height=\"1894\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image145.jpeg 1193w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image145-189x300.jpeg 189w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image145-645x1024.jpeg 645w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image145-768x1219.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image145-968x1536.jpeg 968w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image145-65x103.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image145-225x357.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image145-350x556.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1193px) 100vw, 1193px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1672\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>Capitoline Venus<\/em>, 2nd century C.E., marble, 193 cm (Capitoline Museums, Rome) (Roman copy of the Aphrodite of Knidos, a 4th century B.C.E. Greek original by Praxiteles) (Photo: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Capitoline_Venus_-_Palazzo_Nuovo_-_Musei_Capitolini_-_Rome_2016.jpg\">Jos\u00e9 Luiz Bernardes Ribeiro<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p><em>Aphrodite of Knidos<\/em> was the first female nude sculpture from Ancient Greece. The sculpture began the tradition of the female nude in Western art. Despite the shock of the new, Praxiteles worked with existing visual arts traditions. Like other marble sculptures from the Ancient Greek world, the <em>Aphrodite of Knidos<\/em> would have been painted in vibrant natural <strong>colors<\/strong>. Aphrodite also stands in the <strong>contrapposto<\/strong> stance for the <strong>composition<\/strong>. Her right leg is relaxed, and her left leg is engaged. Unlike the heroic nudity of male sculptures, however, Praxiteles overlaps Aphrodite\u2019s arms in front of her body: the right arm creates a 90-degree angle with the <strong>horizontal line<\/strong> of her arm just below her breasts. Her left arm angles <strong>diagonally<\/strong> toward her genital region. While the composition gives the appearance of modesty, it is a false modesty. The positioning of the arms only draws more attention to certain features of Aphrodite\u2019s <strong>figurative form<\/strong>. The <strong>composition<\/strong> also holds more visual weight on the right hand-side of the sculpture. Next to Aphrodite sits a bathing urn for water and a cloak. Praxiteles refers to Aphrodite\u2019s origin story: she is created fully formed carried on the waves of the sea. The <strong>iconography<\/strong> or symbolism Praxiteles gives, including the cloak to indicate the viewer has interrupted a private moment for Aphrodite at the bath, provides greater context and a reminder that the piece was originally intended as a religious sculpture and placed in an open-air, circular shrine.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"the-hellenistic-period-and-beyond-323-b.c.e.31-b.c.e.\">The Hellenistic Period and Beyond (323 B.C.E.\u201331 B.C.E.)<\/h2>\n<p>Following the death of\u00a0Alexander the Great\u00a0in 323 B.C.E., the Greeks and their influence stretched as far east as modern India. While some pieces intentionally mimicked the Classical style of the previous period such as Eutychides\u2019\u00a0<em><a href=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b8\/Tyche_Antioch_Vatican_Inv2672.jpg\">Tyche of Antioche<\/a>\u00a0<\/em>(Louvre),\u00a0other artists were more interested in capturing motion and emotion. For example, on the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-pergamon-altar\/\">Great Altar of Zeus from Pergamon<\/a>\u00a0(below) expressions of agony and a confused\u00a0mass of limbs convey\u00a0a newfound interest in drama. Architecturally, the scale of structures vastly increased, as can be seen with the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/f\/f1\/Temple_of_Apollo,_Didyma_02.jpg\">Temple of Apollo at Didyma<\/a>, and some complexes even terraced their surrounding landscape in order to create spectacular vistas as can be seen at the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/a\/ae\/Kos_Asklepeion.jpg\">Sanctuary of Asklepios on Kos<\/a>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1673\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1673\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/perg.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1673\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image146.jpeg\" alt=\"A detailed photograph of Athena defeats Alkyoneus (detail), The Pergamon Altar stone relief sculpture depicting mythological figures in dynamic poses with flowing garments and wings. The relief features intricate carvings of muscular human forms, serpents, and draped fabric, highlighting artistic craftsmanship and storytelling from classical antiquity.\" width=\"870\" height=\"505\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image146.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image146-300x174.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image146-768x446.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image146-65x38.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image146-225x131.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image146-350x203.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1673\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Athena defeats Alkyoneus (detail), <em>The Pergamon Altar<\/em>, c. 200\u2013150 B.C.E. (Hellenistic Period), 35.64 x 33.4 meters, marble (Pergamon Museum, Berlin, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pergamonmuseum_-_Antikensammlung_-_Pergamonaltar_13.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 id=\"alexander-the-great\">Alexander the Great<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1674\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1674\" style=\"width: 1430px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1674\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image147.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of an ancient marble relief sculpture depicting a dynamic battle scene with warriors, horses, and a fallen animal. The relief features detailed carvings of figures in motion, including a mounted soldier wielding a weapon, a shield-bearing warrior, and a charging bull, all framed by decorative borders.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"869\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image147.jpeg 1430w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image147-300x182.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image147-1024x622.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image147-768x467.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image147-65x40.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image147-225x137.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image147-350x213.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1430px) 100vw, 1430px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1674\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Alexander the Great (mounted figure at left) from\u00a0The Alexander Sarcophagus, c. 312 B.C.E. (found in Sidon), Pentelic marble and polychromy, 195 x 318 x 167 cm (\u0130stanbul Archaeological Museums, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Battle_of_Issos_won_by_Alexander_the_Great.jpg\">Yair-haklai<\/a> &#8211; Own work, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>),<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In 336 B.C.E. a young man named Alexander inherited control of a kingdom called Macedon in the area of modern day Greece. Alexander had military experience but was only 20 years old when his father was assassinated, leaving him in control of a large swath of land at a young age. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Andrew Stewart,\u00a0Art in the Hellenistic Age: An Introduction\u00a0(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), p. 8.\" id=\"return-footnote-1689-1\" href=\"#footnote-1689-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> Over the next 13 years, Alexander aggressively expanded his territory. By the time he died in 323 B.C.E., his territory stretched all the way to modern day India. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Richard Neer,\u00a0Art &amp; Archaeology of the Greek World,\u00a02nd edition (London: Thames and Hudson, 2019), p. 351.\" id=\"return-footnote-1689-2\" href=\"#footnote-1689-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a> His Macedonian Empire was one of the largest empires that ever existed. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stewart (2014), p. 8.\" id=\"return-footnote-1689-3\" href=\"#footnote-1689-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a> It is one of the reasons that Alexander is today known as Alexander the Great.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1675\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1675\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/MacedonEmpire.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1675\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image148.jpeg\" alt=\"Map illustrating the empire of Alexander the Great from 336 to 323 BCE, highlighting key cities, routes taken by Alexander, and battle sites. The map uses color gradients to show terrain elevation and includes labeled regions across Europe, Asia, and Africa, emphasizing the vast extent of Alexander's conquests.\" width=\"870\" height=\"416\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image148.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image148-300x143.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image148-768x367.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image148-65x31.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image148-225x108.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image148-350x167.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1675\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map of Alexander the Great\u2019s conquests, c. 338\u2013328 B.C.E. (map:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:MacedonEmpire.jpg\">Generic Mapping Tools<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The short and violent life of the\u00a0Macedonian\u00a0king Alexander the Great offers a useful case study in war\u2019s repercussions for cultural heritage. As he fought his way through the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/persian-art-an-introduction\/\">Persian Empire<\/a>\u00a0in the late 4th century B.C.E., Alexander the Great famously destroyed monuments, such as the palace of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/persepolis-the-audience-hall-of-darius-and-xerxes\/\">Persepolis<\/a>, an important political and administrative center in present-day Iran. At the same time, his conquest of the rich and powerful ancient kingdom of the\u00a0Achaemenids\u00a0also encouraged the creation of new works of art, for example,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/portraits-alexander-the-great\/\">portraits of Alexander<\/a>\u00a0by the celebrated artists Lysippos and Apelles. And in his later years, Alexander became an increasingly significant rebuilder of monuments like the ziggurat of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-babylon-excavations-restorations-and-modern-tourism\/\">Babylon<\/a>, better known as the Biblical Tower of Babel.<\/p>\n<p>Alexander\u2019s destruction, creation, and rebuilding of monuments illuminates ancient attitudes and practices toward cultural heritage in wartime. His actions suggest an ideal of protecting monuments during war, yet Alexander also used symbolic violence toward cultural heritage as a military and political strategy to demonstrate his absolute power and highlight the dangers of resistance. This has important repercussions for our understanding of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/frameworks-cultural-heritage\/\">ancient concepts of the protection of cultural heritage<\/a>\u00a0in wartime: an issue of critical importance in Alexander\u2019s era, and one that remains highly relevant today.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"portraits-of-alexander-the-great\">Portraits of Alexander the Great<\/h2>\n<p>Alexander the Great ruled his empire long before modern media existed. He could not give televised speeches, nor could he circulate his image and ideas in newspapers. Very few people who lived under his rule ever saw him in person. Instead, Alexander was known to many through his\u00a0portraits. Ancient authors suggest that Alexander the Great was well aware of the importance of his portraits and controlled them carefully. He had a favorite sculptor, Lysippos, whom he gave special permission to design his sculpted portraits. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Pliny,\u00a0Natural History, 7.12.\" id=\"return-footnote-1689-4\" href=\"#footnote-1689-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a> While no original portrait of Alexander made by Lysippos survives, many copies of his work exist, as do other versions of Alexander\u2019s portraits. Examining these copies can help us understand what is innovative about Alexander the Great\u2019s portraits and how they were crafted to convey a certain message about the ruler to viewers.<\/p>\n<p>Before we look at some of these portraits, we must consider two issues that complicate our study of them. The first is the difference between a portrait and a likeness. Although a portrait is a representation of an individual, it is not necessarily a likeness of that individual, meaning that it does not have to depict the individual as they actually appear. Portraits can remove flaws and exaggerate good features, resulting in\u00a0idealized\u00a0images. Of course, we have no photographs of Alexander the Great, so it is difficult to determine what he really looked like, but written sources suggest that he was idealized in his portraits. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Andrew Stewart,\u00a0\u00a0Faces of Power: Alexander\u2019s Image and Hellenistic Politics\u00a0(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), p. 73.\" id=\"return-footnote-1689-5\" href=\"#footnote-1689-5\" aria-label=\"Footnote 5\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[5]<\/sup><\/a> Alexander the Great and the artists who worked for him were less interested in conveying his exact likeness and more interested in creating portraits that presented him as a capable young ruler.<\/p>\n<p>The second major issue that complicates our understanding of portraits of Alexander the Great is the lack of surviving originals. Most portraits that have been identified as depicting Alexander were probably made long after his death. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"R. R. R. Smith,\u00a0Hellenistic Sculpture: a Handbook\u00a0(London: Thames &amp; Hudson, 1991), p. 21.\" id=\"return-footnote-1689-6\" href=\"#footnote-1689-6\" aria-label=\"Footnote 6\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[6]<\/sup><\/a> Some might be copies of famous portraits by important artists like Lysippos, but this is difficult to determine because we can\u2019t compare them to surviving originals. Scholars often rely on literary descriptions of Alexander and his images to identify his portraits. These portraits share some distinctive characteristics that are also mentioned in the written sources. By looking closely at a few of these sculptures we can become more familiar with the defining characteristics of Alexander the Great\u2019s portraits.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-heads-of-alexander\">The heads of Alexander<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1676\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1676\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/azara-herm.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1676\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image149.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Portrait of Alexander the Great marble bust with face, featuring curly hair and a rectangular base inscribed with worn Latin text.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1413\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image149.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image149-185x300.jpeg 185w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image149-630x1024.jpeg 630w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image149-768x1247.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image149-65x106.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image149-225x365.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image149-350x568.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1676\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Portrait of Alexander the Great (the so-called Azara Alexander), Roman marble copy of a Greek original, c. 1\u201350 C.E., 68 x 32 x 27 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/collections.louvre.fr\/en\/ark:\/53355\/cl010277962\">Mus\u00e9e du Louvre<\/a>, Paris, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>One portrait of Alexander the Great is today known as the Azara Alexander because it was once owned by a man whose last name was Azara. The bottom of this portrait bust is inscribed with Alexander the Great\u2019s name, allowing us to securely identify him. However, we know that this is not a Greek original because the Greeks didn\u2019t make portrait busts. Romans invented portrait busts, which only show the heads (and sometimes shoulders) of an individual. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"John Boardman,\u00a0Greek Sculpture: the Late Classical Period\u00a0(London: Thames and Hudson, 1995), p. 103.\" id=\"return-footnote-1689-7\" href=\"#footnote-1689-7\" aria-label=\"Footnote 7\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[7]<\/sup><\/a> The Roman artist who made the Azara Alexander attached the portrait head to a block-like bust that carries the identifying inscription. Some scholars believe this is a Roman copy of an original Greek portrait of Alexander by Lysippos. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Brunilde Ridgway,\u00a0Hellenistic Sculpture I: The Styles of ca. 331\u2013200 B.C.\u00a0(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), p. 123 argues this is not a copy of an image by Lysippos.\" id=\"return-footnote-1689-8\" href=\"#footnote-1689-8\" aria-label=\"Footnote 8\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[8]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<p>Many of the distinctive characteristics of Alexander the Great\u2019s portraits are visible here. First, Alexander is shown without a beard. Prior to Alexander\u2019s rule, Greek men were typically shown with beards, which signaled their maturity and adulthood. By appearing without a beard, Alexander the Great broke with tradition and emphasized his youthfulness. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Ariel Herrmann, \u201cArt in the Age of Alexander,\u201d\u00a0Pergamon and the Hellenistic Kingdoms of the Ancient World, exhibition catalogue, edited by Carlos A. Pic\u00f3n and Se\u00e1n Hemingway (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2016), p. 13.\" id=\"return-footnote-1689-9\" href=\"#footnote-1689-9\" aria-label=\"Footnote 9\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[9]<\/sup><\/a> Many kings that succeeded Alexander imitated his beardlessness in their own portraits.<\/p>\n<p>Another defining trait of Alexander the Great is his hairstyle. The two locks of hair at the center of his forehead stand straight up and are parted slightly off center in a style that is called anastole. His hair is thick, with many long, wavy pieces. Ancient authors describe Alexander the Great as being lion-like in personality, and in his portraits, his leonine nature is expressed through his hairstyle: in its fullness and wildness, his hair recalls a lion\u2019s mane. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Julius Valerius,\u00a0Res gestae Alexandri Macedonia,\u00a01.7.\" id=\"return-footnote-1689-10\" href=\"#footnote-1689-10\" aria-label=\"Footnote 10\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[10]<\/sup><\/a> Alexander\u2019s hairstyle thus makes him more easily recognizable and conveys his lion-like fierceness.<\/p>\n<p>Additional features typical of Alexander\u2019s portraits are present in the Azara Alexander. The head turns slightly, adding a liveliness to the image, as if Alexander is engaged and responsive. The head also has a far off gaze, which is sometimes described as \u201cmelting\u201d and was apparently a real physical trait of Alexander. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Andrew Stewart,\u00a0Art, Desire and the Body in Ancient Greece\u00a0(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 209.\" id=\"return-footnote-1689-11\" href=\"#footnote-1689-11\" aria-label=\"Footnote 11\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[11]<\/sup><\/a> Ancient authors mention all four of these traits (beardlessness, anastole of leonine hair, turning head, and melting gaze) in their written descriptions of Lysippos\u2019s portraits of Alexander, supporting the idea that this may be a Roman copy of a Greek sculpture by Lysippos. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Iphigeneia Leventi, \u201cThe Great Masters of the Fourth Century,\u201d\u00a0Handbook of Greek Sculpture, edited by Olga Palagia (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2019), p. 386. One ancient source that addresses this topic is Plutarch,\u00a0Moralia\u00a0335A-B.\" id=\"return-footnote-1689-12\" href=\"#footnote-1689-12\" aria-label=\"Footnote 12\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[12]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1677\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1677\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/munich-alexander.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1677\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image150.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of Portrait of Alexander the Great marble bust sculpture depicting a Alexander the Great with curly hair, shown from the front against a black background. The bust includes detailed hair texture and a partial neck.\" width=\"870\" height=\"621\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image150.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image150-300x214.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image150-768x548.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image150-65x46.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image150-225x161.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image150-350x250.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1677\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Portrait of Alexander the Great (the so-called Alexander Schwarzenberg), Roman marble copy of a Greek original, c. 20 B.C.E.\u201320 C.E., 35.5 cm high (Glyptothek, Munich; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Alexander_Schwarzenberg_Glyptothek_Munich.jpg\">public domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Other surviving portrait heads of Alexander the Great also have these defining traits. One head of Alexander that is now in Munich has also been recognized as a Roman copy of a Greek original by Lysippos. Alexander is beardless, with the typical anastole and leonine hair. His head turns towards the right, engaging the muscles in his neck, and his deep set eyes seem to gaze off into the faraway distance. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Florian S. Knauss, \u201cCat. No. 7: Portrait of Alexander the Great (The Alexander Schwarzenberg),\u201d\u00a0Pergamon and the Hellenistic Kingdoms of the Ancient World, exhibition catalogue, edited by Carlos A. Pic\u00f3n and Se\u00e1n Hemingway (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2016), p. 108.\" id=\"return-footnote-1689-13\" href=\"#footnote-1689-13\" aria-label=\"Footnote 13\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[13]<\/sup><\/a> While we can\u2019t be totally sure that this Roman statue is imitating a Greek sculpture by Lysippos, we can identify it as a portrait of Alexander.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-body-of-alexander\">The body of Alexander<\/h3>\n<p>We have learned to recognize Alexander the Great based on his distinctive features. But during his lifetime his sculpted portraits depicted his entire body, not just his head. To get a sense of how the rest of Alexander was depicted, we must once again turn to Roman copies of Greek statues.<\/p>\n<p>One such Roman statue, <a href=\"https:\/\/harvardartmuseums.org\/collections\/object\/312306\">Alexander the Great (the so-called Nelidow Alexander<\/a>), is recognizable as Alexander because of its leonine hair with anastole, beardlessness, and faraway gaze. Here we find the king in the nude. He once held a spear in his left hand, planting it into the ground to indicate he is in control of the land upon which he stands. Alexander poses almost casually, showcasing his perfected musculature. His idealized body emulates the ideal that was developed by Greek sculptors during the\u00a0High Classical period. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stewart (1997), p. 208.\" id=\"return-footnote-1689-14\" href=\"#footnote-1689-14\" aria-label=\"Footnote 14\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[14]<\/sup><\/a> Alexander was a great fan of Greek culture and believed himself to be descended from the Greek heroes Herakles and Achilles. Indeed, in this portrait, he is so idealized that he looks like a Greek hero. Despite this he is still recognizable as Alexander because of his face and hair. Through the idealization of the nude body, this portrait exaggerates the physical prowess and power of the real ruler it represents.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"an-unconventional-alexander\">An unconventional Alexander<\/h3>\n<p>All of Alexander\u2019s portraits were carefully crafted to convey that he was a worthy leader, but a few of them broke with the conventional format defined above to show him in a more local style. These representations are still designed to prove his legitimacy to rule, but because they are doing this for a different audience, they look different than typical portraits of Alexander. For example, sometime after Alexander conquered northern Egypt, he made additions to a centuries-old\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/temple-of-amun-re-and-the-hypostyle-hall-karnak\/\">temple at Karnak<\/a>\u00a0to simultaneously demonstrate his respect for the Egyptian gods and his power. The chapel he commissioned was decorated with dozens of reliefs that show him worshiping the Egyptian gods.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1678\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1678\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/08\/karnak-alexander.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1678\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image151.jpeg\" alt=\"Bas-relief carving depicting two ancient Egyptian figures facing each other, one of which is Alexander the Great, surrounded by hieroglyphic inscriptions. One figure wears a tall crown and holds a staff.\" width=\"870\" height=\"621\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image151.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image151-300x214.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image151-768x548.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image151-65x46.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image151-225x161.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image151-350x250.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1678\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Alexander the Great from the Luxor Temple, Karnak, Egypt, c. 325 B.C.E., sandstone, 1.4 m high (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Luxor-Tempel_Alexandersanktuar_13.jpg\">Olaf Tausch<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In this example, we see Alexander on the right approaching a god. He has neither leonine hair nor anastole, and his faraway gaze is gone. Instead, he is represented in a highly conventional Egyptian manner. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stewart (2014), p. 50.\" id=\"return-footnote-1689-15\" href=\"#footnote-1689-15\" aria-label=\"Footnote 15\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[15]<\/sup><\/a> He wears an Egyptian kilt and headdress, while his body is shown in composite view, with his chest frontal and his head, arms, and legs in profile. His idealized musculature matches that of the god he faces. In fact, Alexander looks so much like other Egyptian rulers in this image that we can only be sure this is him because he is accompanied by\u00a0hieroglyphs\u00a0that spell out his name. Alexander has adapted the imagery of local Egyptian rulers in this temple so that he would be more easily recognizable as a leader to the Egyptians who visited this holy structure.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-legacy-of-alexanders-portraits\">The legacy of Alexander\u2019s portraits<\/h3>\n<p>Alexander the Great\u2019s portraits were designed to portray him as an effective ruler. The goal of these portraits was not to represent Alexander exactly as he appeared, but to highlight his best traits and convey his strength to all who saw them. Certain physical characteristics make Alexander identifiable to us even today, including his clean shaven face, his long curling hair and anastole, and his faraway gaze. These same traits would have also enabled ancient viewers throughout his empire to recognize him. Occasionally Alexander\u2019s portraits conform to a different ideal so that they can clearly express his power to a different audience, but even then, their goal is to make him recognizable as a leader.<\/p>\n<p>The Macedonian Empire fractured into several different kingdoms soon after Alexander\u2019s death in 323 B.C.E. Many of the leaders of these\u00a0Hellenistic\u00a0kingdoms continued to make portraits of Alexander, honoring him long after his death. These leaders believed that Alexander became a god after he died, so he sometimes acquired new characteristics that suggest his divinity in these later portraits, even while retaining his typical traits.<\/p>\n<p>For example, in a portrait of Alexander on a coin made in Thrace after his death, Alexander wears a royal\u00a0diadem. He also has ram\u2019s horns sprouting from his head, which show he is descended from the Egyptian ram-god: the horns show Alexander\u2019s godliness. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Stewart (2014), p. 53.\" id=\"return-footnote-1689-16\" href=\"#footnote-1689-16\" aria-label=\"Footnote 16\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[16]<\/sup><\/a> Despite these new features, Alexander is still recognizable because he is beardless and has his distinctive anastole and curls. The same kings who added such portraits of the\u00a0deified\u00a0Alexander to their coins also emulated Alexander in their own portraits, often representing themselves without beards. Alexander the Great\u2019s influential portraits thus lived long after he did, on Hellenistic coins, in Roman copies, and in many other ways.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"nike-winged-victory-of-samothrace\">Nike (Winged Victory) of Samothrace<\/h2>\n<p>On the island of Samothrace, the wind whipped the clothing of this stone goddess of victory.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Nike of Samothrace (Winged Victory)\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/PjI0hAr0Vo0?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"the-pergamon-altar\">The Pergamon Altar<\/h2>\n<h3 id=\"the-battle-between-the-gods-and-giants\">The battle between the gods and giants<\/h3>\n<p>The ancient\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-greece-an-introduction\/\">Greeks<\/a>\u00a0represented the mythological battle between the Olympian gods and the giants in a wide variety of media\u2014from miniature engraved gemstones and vase paintings, to over-life-sized architectural sculptures.<\/p>\n<p>Perhaps the most famous and well-preserved of these decorates the Pergamon Altar. The\u00a0Altar\u00a0once stood in a sacred precinct on the\u00a0acropolis\u00a0of the ancient city of Pergamon (on the west coast of modern-day Turkey), which was ruled by the Attalid dynasty from 282\u2013133 B.C.E.<\/p>\n<p>In comparison to other Hellenistic kingdoms (kingdoms formed after the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C.E. and stretching from the eastern Mediterranean to Central Asia), Pergamon emerged relatively late on the scene. Monumental building projects\u2014including the Altar\u2014served as an important way for the Attalids to stake their claim as legitimate\u00a0inheritors of Alexander\u2019s empire and, by extension, the legacy of Classical Greece.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/L3SIooVHV8E?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"athanadoros-hagesandros-and-polydoros-of-rhodes-laoco\u00f6n-and-his-sons\">Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>The writhing agony of the Trojan Laoco\u00f6n made this Hellenistic sculpture famous throughout history.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-4\" title=\"Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/RUdXVrE-QNE?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1679\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1679\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Laocoo%CC%88n-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1679\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-1.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of the Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons marble sculpture depicting three muscular male figures struggling with large serpents. The sculpture highlights intricate details of anatomy, expressions of pain and struggle, and dynamic composition within a niche setting.\" width=\"870\" height=\"521\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-1.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-1-300x180.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-1-768x460.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-1-65x39.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-1-225x135.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-1-350x210.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1679\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,<em>\u00a0Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em>, early 1st century C.E., marble, 7 feet 10 1\/2 inches high (Vatican Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jdLrzT\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The sculptural group known today as the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>or\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em>\u00a0has been both one of the most influential ancient\u00a0artworks in the history of art and one of the most fiercely debated. It has been copied by countless artists, and numerous books have been written about it, yet there is still little scholarly consensus about the circumstances of its creation.<\/p>\n<p>The statue was discovered in 1506 on the Esquiline Hill in Rome by a farmer working in his vineyard.\u00a0The\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>was only one of a number of ancient artworks that had been abandoned, forgotten, and eventually buried under later buildings and streets. During the Renaissance, a number of these artworks were rediscovered, either accidentally during construction projects or purposefully by people hunting for the artworks which had become greatly admired. One of the first people to see the statue was\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/europe-1300-1800\/italy-16th-century\/michelangelo\/\">Michelangelo<\/a>, who was sent by the pope, Julius II, along with architect Guiliano da Sangallo, to inspect the statue after its excavation. Julius, like many of his 16th-century Italian contemporaries, was a connoisseur and collector of ancient Greek and Roman art. He purchased the statue, and it has remained in the collection of the Vatican ever since.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1680\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1680\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/02\/51883453175_a9c03ca58d_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1680\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image152.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of a Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons sculpture depicting a muscular man struggling with a large serpent, showcasing intricate details of human anatomy and intense facial expression. The detail of the sculpture features two figures entwined with serpents, highlighting dynamic movement and dramatic tension.\" width=\"870\" height=\"489\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image152.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image152-300x169.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image152-768x432.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image152-65x37.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image152-225x126.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image152-350x197.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1680\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em>, early 1st century C.E., marble, 7 feet 10 1\/2 inches high (Vatican Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2n3Lg38\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Most likely dating to the 1st century B.C.E. or 1st century C.E., the statue is made of six blocks of Greek Parian marble. It is over-life sized, at a height of 6\u2019 8\u201d. The composition depicts the tortuous death of Laoco\u00f6n and his two sons by snakes (read the full story below). All three are nude with clearly defined, exaggerated musculature. Bands of clenched muscles are visible under the skin of\u00a0 Laoco\u00f6n\u2019s torso as he reaches up to fight off the snakes. The statue, like all ancient Greek and Roman marble sculptures, would have been painted originally. The bright green of the twisting snakes and the red blood drawn by their bites would have stood out against the tan flesh of Laoco\u00f6n and his sons.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1681\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1681\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/02\/51881831967_59de5bb597_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1681\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image153.jpeg\" alt=\"Detail image of Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons depicting a muscular, bearded man with a contorted, anguished expression and detailed curly hair. The sculpture highlights intricate anatomy and emotional intensity, with the figure's arm partially missing, emphasizing its ancient and weathered condition.\" width=\"870\" height=\"489\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image153.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image153-300x169.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image153-768x432.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image153-65x37.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image153-225x126.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image153-350x197.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1681\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons, early 1st century C.E., marble, 7 feet 10 1\/2 inches high (Vatican Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2n3BX7g\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Laoco\u00f6n is at the center of the composition, sitting in a twisted position on an altar. One snake sinks its teeth into his hip. Laoco\u00f6n throws his head back as he screams in agony. His hair and beard curl in deeply carved locks, contributing to the sculpture\u2019s dramatic tone. Based on surviving paint on his eyes, some scholars have argued that he has been blinded by the bites of the snakes.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1682\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1682\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/08\/50028119756_4eb60d4f92_6k-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1682\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image154.jpeg\" alt=\"Side detail view of Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons marble sculpture, depicting three human figures entwined by large serpents. The detailed composition highlights muscular anatomy, expressive faces, and intricate serpent coils, set against a plain background with a carved frieze visible on the left.\" width=\"870\" height=\"489\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image154.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image154-300x169.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image154-768x432.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image154-65x37.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image154-225x126.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image154-350x197.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1682\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,<em>\u00a0Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em>, early 1st century C.E., marble, 7 feet 10 1\/2 inches high (Vatican Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jdPc3U\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Laoco\u00f6n is flanked by his two teenaged sons. The figure on the left, the younger of the two, has gone limp, and it is likely that he is already dead. The older son, on the right, pulls snake coils off his leg and arm. He turns to look at his father, an expression of horror and confusion on his face. With its emphasis on theatricality and exaggerated realism, it is similar to artworks of the so-called Hellenistic baroque, such as the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/nike-winged-victory-of-samothrace\/\"><em>Nike of Samothrace\u00a0<\/em><\/a>and the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-pergamon-altar\/\">Great Altar at Pergamon<\/a>. While the style is most closely associated with the city of Pergamon and the island Rhodes in the 2nd century B.C.E., Hellenistic baroque had an enduring popularity, and artworks in the style continued to be produced into the Roman Imperial period, with Rome becoming a center of Hellenistic art.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1683\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1683\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/08\/5604386389_80952d8483_o.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1683\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image155.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of the Winged Victory of Samothrace, a marble statue of the Greek goddess Nike, displayed on a stone pedestal inside a museum with beige walls and an arched doorway. The statue features detailed drapery and large wings but lacks a head and arms, symbolizing victory and movement.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1160\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image155.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image155-225x300.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image155-768x1024.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image155-65x87.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image155-350x467.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1683\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>Nike of Samothrace (winged Victory)<\/em>, Lartos marble (ship), Parian marble (figure), c. 190 B.C.E., 3.28 meters high (Louvre, Paris; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/9xeWPx\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"the-story-of-laoco\u00f6n\">The Story of Laoco\u00f6n<\/h3>\n<p>The myth of Laoco\u00f6n dates back to the 7th century B.C.E. It was part of the Epic Cycle, a series of poems that told the story of the Trojan War (Greeks against the city of Troy, in present-day Turkey). Today, only the\u00a0<em>Iliad\u00a0<\/em>and the\u00a0<em>Odyssey\u00a0<\/em>survive, but we have fragments or descriptions of the other volumes. Laoco\u00f6n appeared in the now-lost\u00a0<em>Ilioupersis\u00a0<\/em>(the sack of Troy) by Arktinos of Miletos. Versions of Laoco\u00f6n\u2019s story appeared after that, notably in a now-lost 5th-century B.C.E. play of Sophocles.<\/p>\n<p>The version closest chronologically to the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>statue appeared in Roman writer Vergil\u2019s\u00a0<em>Aeneid<\/em>, published in 19 B.C.E. The\u00a0<em>Aeneid<\/em>\u00a0tells the story of the Trojan warrior Aeneas who escapes from Troy during its destruction and makes his way to Italy, where he rules over the Latin people.\u00a0The story of Laoco\u00f6n forms part of book two, which recounts the sack of Troy. The Greeks pretended to give up their siege of Troy with its unbreakable walls, leaving only a large wooden horse as a final offering to the gods. In actuality, some hid out of sight while others hid inside the horse. Only a few Trojans spoke against bringing the horse inside the city. The first was Cassandra, who was blessed with the gift of prophecy, but cursed that no one would ever believe her. The other was Laoco\u00f6n, a priest of Neptune (Greek Poseidon). He warned the Trojans with his now famous line, \u201cI fear the Greeks, even when they bring gifts.\u201d But the gods had decided the Greeks were to win the war, and no one, divine or mortal, can defy fate. So the gods sent a pair of snakes to silence Laoco\u00f6n. They came from the sea, attacking Laoco\u00f6n and his sons while he made a sacrifice. They bit and wrapped themselves around the three, killing first the sons and then Laoco\u00f6n. This is the moment represented in the marble statue.<\/p>\n<p>Trojan war stories were popular in ancient Rome, especially during the reigns of the Julio-Claudian emperors (27 B.C.E.\u201368 C.E.). The myths connected the Romans back to the ancient and revered past, giving them legitimacy as a cultural and military power through these connections. The Julian family traced their lineage directly back to the Trojan warrior Aeneas, and so actively promoted art and literature like the\u00a0<em>Aeneid\u00a0<\/em>that focused on Troy.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1684\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1684\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/08\/Pompeii_Casa_del_Menandro_Laocoon.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1684\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image156.jpeg\" alt=\"A fresco painting depicting a Laoco\u00f6n in a chaotic scene with multiple human figures, including one central figure holding a snake and others seated or lying on the ground. The artwork features muted earth tones, a red border, and elements such as a fallen table, scattered objects, and a reclining animal, suggesting a narrative context.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1124\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image156.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image156-232x300.jpeg 232w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image156-793x1024.jpeg 793w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image156-768x992.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image156-65x84.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image156-225x291.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image156-350x452.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1684\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Scene showing Laoco\u00f6n, 1st century C.E., atrium of the House of Menandro, Pompeii (<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Pompeii_Casa_del_Menandro_Laocoon.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>While Laoco\u00f6n was a recurring subject in texts, he was not as popular in art. Images of Laoco\u00f6n have been identified on a few pots made by south Italian Greeks in the 4th century B.C.E., but most of the known images are Roman. Gems dating to the late imperial period as well as two 1st-century C.E. paintings from houses in Pompeii depict the death of Laoco\u00f6n. Artworks are few, however, and the marble statue is the only monumental depiction of the subject to survive.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1685\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1685\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/08\/50028119131_9841ed3e2d_6k-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1685\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image157.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of the Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons marble sculpture, depicting a muscular man and his two sons entangled by serpents. The sculpture highlights detailed anatomy, intense expressions, and dynamic poses, set against a stone wall with a carved relief panel.\" width=\"870\" height=\"489\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image157.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image157-300x169.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image157-768x432.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image157-65x37.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image157-225x126.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image157-350x197.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1685\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em>, early 1st century C.E., marble, 7 feet 10 1\/2 inches high (Vatican Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jdPbS8\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"pliny-and-the-laoco\u00f6n\">Pliny and The Laoco\u00f6n<\/h3>\n<p>The\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n<\/em>\u00a0is fairly unusual among surviving ancient artworks because it is described in an ancient text,\u00a0<em>Natural History<\/em>,\u00a0by Pliny the Elder. Most of the famous artworks described by ancient authors have been lost and those artworks that have survived are without ancient textual description.<\/p>\n<p>Pliny, a Roman aristocrat and scholar, published the first volumes of\u00a0<em>The Natural History\u00a0<\/em>in 77 C.E. This encyclopedia was intended to record all known knowledge. In his discussion of famous statues, Pliny describes the Laoco\u00f6n as he saw it in the house of the ancient Roman emperor\u00a0Titus, and attributes it to the artists Hagesandros, Polydoros, and Athenodoros of Rhodes. Pliny praises the statue as superior to all other artworks. Despite some inconsistencies between the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>statue and Pliny\u2019s description, notably the statue is made of multiple blocks of stone rather than a single block as Pliny says, it is widely accepted that the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>in the Vatican is the statue described by Pliny.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1686\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1686\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/02\/51882879208_1300434524_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1686\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image158.jpeg\" alt=\"Detail image of one son from Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons marble sculpture, depicting a youthful boy entangled by serpents. The sculpture highlights detailed anatomy, intense expressions, and dynamic poses.\" width=\"870\" height=\"489\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image158.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image158-300x169.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image158-768x432.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image158-65x37.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image158-225x126.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image158-350x197.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1686\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em>, early 1st century C.E., marble, 7 feet 10 1\/2 inches high (Vatican Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2n3Hjq9\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"dating-the-laoco\u00f6n\">Dating the Laoco\u00f6n<\/h3>\n<p>The circumstances surrounding the creation of the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n<\/em>, including its date, have been long debated by scholars. While one scholar proposed that the statue was actually a Renaissance forgery by Michelangelo, this theory has been widely discredited, and most scholars date the statue between 150 B.C.E. and 70 C.E. Each of these proposals examine why a statue in the Hellenistic Greek style was found in Rome, and the role of Romans as patrons and collectors of Greek sculpture.<\/p>\n<p>The Romans, especially in the late Republic and early Empire, were\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/how-a-famous-greek-bronze-ended-up-in-the-vatican\/\">active connoisseurs of Greek art<\/a>. As they conquered Greek territories, they imported large numbers of Greek artworks to Italy, removing them from homes, public buildings, and sanctuaries. Romans displayed Greek artworks in their homes and public spaces, many in contexts far removed from their original locations and purposes. These artworks took on new meanings as symbols of the wealth and education of their owners. The Romans also commissioned copies of famous statues as well as new compositions inspired by Greek originals. Rome became a center of Hellenistic art as Greek artists moved to Italy to work for wealthy Romans.<\/p>\n<p>Theories that posit the earliest date for the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>propose that, based on stylistic similarities, the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n<\/em>\u00a0is contemporary to the 2nd-century B.C.E.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-pergamon-altar\/\">Great Altar at Pergamon<\/a>\u00a0and that it was made in the Greek island of Rhodes before being exported to Rome. Other scholars propose that the marble statue found in Rome was a copy of an earlier 2nd-century Greek original. Most writers, however, argue that the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>was made in Rome for Roman patrons.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1687\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1687\" style=\"width: 516px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/03\/Carole-Raddato-3-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1687\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image159.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of an ancient marble relief sculpture depicting mythological figures in dynamic poses, including a central kneeling male figure and two standing figures on either side. The relief features intricate drapery, muscular details, and sea creatures at the base, with labels &quot;NEREUS&quot; and &quot;OKEANOS&quot; identifying the figures.\" width=\"516\" height=\"378\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image159.jpeg 516w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image159-300x220.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image159-65x48.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image159-225x165.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image159-350x256.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 516px) 100vw, 516px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1687\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">North side of grand staircase, Pergamon Altar (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/CSDnVV\">Carole Raddato<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Support for a Roman context for the creation of the statue comes from the site of Sperlonga, located between Rome and Naples. Here, the emperor\u00a0Tiberius\u00a0had a\u00a0grotto\u00a0for dining and entertainment decorated with monumental marble statues. The statues are over-life sized and depict scenes from the Trojan war or the life of Odysseus. They are in the same dramatic, hyper-realistic style as the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n<\/em>, and an artist\u2019s signature was found on the sculptural group that depicted Odysseus\u2019 run-in with the sea monster, Skylla attributing the statues to Hagesandros, Athenadoros, and Polydoros of Rhodes\u2014the same artists to whom Pliny attributes the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n<\/em>. Debates over the creation of the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>statue are therefore intertwined with the Sperlonga statues.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1688\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1688\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/08\/skylla-sperlonga-copy.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1688\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image160.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of a large, fragmented marble sculpture depicting multiple human figures on a boat, displayed indoors with natural light. The sculpture features dynamic poses and detailed anatomy, with visible cracks and missing parts, highlighting both artistic craftsmanship and signs of aging or damage.\" width=\"870\" height=\"407\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image160.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image160-300x140.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image160-768x359.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image160-65x30.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image160-225x105.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image160-350x164.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1688\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Part of the Skylla group, 1st century B.C.E.\u20131st century C.E., marble, Sperlonga (left photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/q3gXaw\">Carole Raddato<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>; right photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Athanodoros,_agesandros_e_polydoros,_gruppo_di_scilla,_et%C3%A0_tiberiana,_08.jpg\">Sailko<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Most recent scholarly discussions have centered on whether the sculptures were made specifically for the grotto and Titus\u2019s palace or whether they were made earlier and moved to these locations. While there is still no definitive consensus, most scholars now place both the Sperlonga statues and the Laoco\u00f6n in the 1st century B.C.E. or 1st century C.E. Their dramatic, Hellenistic style, along with the focus on Trojan war themes place them in line with the concerns of upper-class Roman patrons in these periods.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"an-unquestionable-legacy\">An unquestionable legacy<\/h3>\n<p>From Pliny to Michelangelo to modern visitors to the Vatican Museums, the\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n\u00a0<\/em>statue has made an impact on its viewers. Its dramatic depiction of the agony of Laoco\u00f6n and his\u00a0sons\u00a0forges an emotional connection with its audience. While scholars continue to debate how and when it was created and its ancient context, its legacy is unquestionable.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1679\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1679\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Laocoo%CC%88n-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1679\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-1.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of the Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons marble sculpture depicting three muscular male figures struggling with large serpents. The sculpture highlights intricate details of anatomy, expressions of pain and struggle, and dynamic composition within a niche setting.\" width=\"870\" height=\"521\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-1.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-1-300x180.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-1-768x460.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-1-65x39.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-1-225x135.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-1-350x210.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1679\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em>, early 1st century C.E., marble, 7 feet 10 1\/2 inches high (Vatican Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jdLrzT\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-7\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n<p>Cleopatra was defeated at the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E. by the future Roman Emperor Augustus (Octavian). Upon her defeat, the\u00a0Ptolemaic dynasty that ruled Egypt and, simultaneously, the Hellenistic Period ended. With the Roman admiration of and predilection for Greek art and culture, however, Classical aesthetics and teachings continued to endure from antiquity to the modern era.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-7\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\n<p>The following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and are licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\n<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Dr. Renee M. Gondek, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek_intro\/\">Introduction to ancient Greek art<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 14, 2016.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/capitoline-venus-copy-of-the-aphrodite-of-knidos\/\">Capitoline Venus (copy of the Aphrodite of Knidos)<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, April 5, 2016.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Rachel Kousser, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/alexander-the-great\/\">Alexander the Great: destroyer, creator, rebuilder<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, April 10, 2025.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Monica Bulger, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/portraits-alexander-the-great\/\">Portraits of Alexander the Great<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, October 15, 2024.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Amanda Herring, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/nike-winged-victory-of-samothrace\/\"><em>Nike (Winged Victory) of Samothrace<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 11, 2021.<\/li>\n<li>Karin E. Christiaens, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-pergamon-altar\/\">The Pergamon Altar<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, April 1, 2021.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Amanda Herring, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/athanadoros-hagesandros-and-polydoros-of-rhodes-laocoon-and-his-sons\/\">Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,\u00a0<em>Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, March 24, 2026.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-1689-1\">Andrew Stewart,\u00a0<em>Art in the Hellenistic Age: An Introduction\u00a0<\/em>(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014), p. 8. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1689-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1689-2\">Richard Neer,\u00a0<em>Art &amp; Archaeology of the Greek World,\u00a0<\/em>2nd edition (London: Thames and Hudson, 2019), p. 351. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1689-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1689-3\">Stewart (2014), p. 8. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1689-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1689-4\">Pliny,\u00a0<em>Natural History<\/em>, 7.12. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1689-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1689-5\">Andrew Stewart,\u00a0\u00a0<em>Faces of Power: Alexander\u2019s Image and Hellenistic Politics\u00a0<\/em>(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), p. 73. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1689-5\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 5\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1689-6\">R. R. R. Smith,\u00a0<em>Hellenistic Sculpture: a Handbook\u00a0<\/em>(London: Thames &amp; Hudson, 1991), p. 21. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1689-6\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 6\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1689-7\">John Boardman,\u00a0<em>Greek Sculpture: the Late Classical Period\u00a0<\/em>(London: Thames and Hudson, 1995), p. 103. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1689-7\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 7\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1689-8\">Brunilde Ridgway,\u00a0<em>Hellenistic Sculpture I: The Styles of ca. 331\u2013200 B.C.\u00a0<\/em>(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), p. 123 argues this is not a copy of an image by Lysippos. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1689-8\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 8\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1689-9\">Ariel Herrmann, \u201cArt in the Age of Alexander,\u201d\u00a0<em>Pergamon and the Hellenistic Kingdoms of the Ancient World<\/em>, exhibition catalogue, edited by Carlos A. Pic\u00f3n and Se\u00e1n Hemingway (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2016), p. 13. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1689-9\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 9\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1689-10\">Julius Valerius,\u00a0<em>Res gestae Alexandri Macedonia<\/em>,\u00a01.7. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1689-10\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 10\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1689-11\">Andrew Stewart,\u00a0<em>Art, Desire and the Body in Ancient Greece\u00a0<\/em>(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p. 209. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1689-11\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 11\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1689-12\">Iphigeneia Leventi, \u201cThe Great Masters of the Fourth Century,\u201d\u00a0<em>Handbook of Greek Sculpture<\/em>, edited by Olga Palagia (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2019), p. 386. One ancient source that addresses this topic is Plutarch,\u00a0<em>Moralia\u00a0<\/em>335A-B. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1689-12\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 12\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1689-13\">Florian S. Knauss, \u201cCat. No. 7: Portrait of Alexander the Great (The Alexander Schwarzenberg),\u201d\u00a0<em>Pergamon and the Hellenistic Kingdoms of the Ancient World<\/em>, exhibition catalogue, edited by Carlos A. Pic\u00f3n and Se\u00e1n Hemingway (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2016), p. 108. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1689-13\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 13\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1689-14\">Stewart (1997), p. 208. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1689-14\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 14\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1689-15\">Stewart (2014), p. 50. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1689-15\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 15\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1689-16\">Stewart (2014), p. 53. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1689-16\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 16\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":2,"menu_order":10,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1689","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1689","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1689\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1987,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1689\/revisions\/1987"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1689\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1689"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1689"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1689"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1689"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}