{"id":1670,"date":"2026-07-16T17:29:42","date_gmt":"2026-07-16T17:29:42","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/chapter\/classical-greece-and-the-parthenon\/"},"modified":"2026-07-27T17:23:44","modified_gmt":"2026-07-27T17:23:44","slug":"classical-greece-and-the-parthenon","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/chapter\/classical-greece-and-the-parthenon\/","title":{"raw":"Classical Greece and the Parthenon","rendered":"Classical Greece and the Parthenon"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-6\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\r\nThe epitome of Ancient Greek art and architecture dates to the Classical era. In the Classical period, increasing attention was paid to the naturalism of the human body. The contrapposto, the concept of <em>symmetria<\/em>, and open form sculpture were introduced with pieces like the <em>Kritios Boy, Doryphoros,<\/em> and <em>Diskobolos<\/em>. Re-built during the Classical period, the Parthenon with its marble sculptures stood as a testament to Ancient Greek ideals and the emerging concept of democracy.\r\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-6\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>Kritios Boy<\/em>, from the Acropolis, Athens, c. 480 B.C.E., Early Classical, Severe style<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Artemision Zeus<\/em> or <em>Poseidon<\/em>, c. 460 B.C.E., bronze, Early Classical, Severe style, recovered from a shipwreck off Cape Artemision<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Polykleitos,\u00a0<em>Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer)<\/em>, Roman marble copy after a Greek bronze original from c.\u00a0450\u2013440 B.C.E., Classical Period<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Myron,\u00a0<em>Discobolus (Discus Thrower)<\/em>, Roman copy of an ancient Greek bronze from c. 450 B.C.E., Classical Period<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Iktinos and Kallikrates, <em>Parthenon<\/em>, Acropolis, Athens, Greece 447\u2013432 B.C.E., Classical Period<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Centauromachy<\/em>, metope from the south frieze of the Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, Greece, c. 447-438 B.C.E., marble, Classical Period<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 id=\"term-list-6\">Term List<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Classical Period<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Early Classical\/Severe Style<\/li>\r\n \t<li>High Classical Period<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Persian Wars<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Contrapposto<\/li>\r\n \t<li>The Canon<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Palestra<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Temple<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Naos<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Antae<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Peripteral temple<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Stoa<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Agora<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Doric order<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Frieze<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Triglyphs<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Metopes<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ionic order<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Corinthian order<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Parthenon<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Democracy<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Stylobate<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Capital<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Athena<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Pericles<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Delian league<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Entasis<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2 id=\"the-classical-period-introduction-480479323-b.c.e.\">The Classical Period Introduction (480\/479\u2013323 B.C.E.)<\/h2>\r\nThough experimentation in realistic movement began before the end of the Archaic Period, it was not until the Classical Period that two- and three-dimensional forms achieved proportions and postures that were naturalistic. The \u201cEarly Classical Period\u201d (480\/479\u2013450 B.C.E., also known as the \u201cSevere Style\u201d) was a period of transition when some sculptural work displayed archaizing holdovers. As can be seen in the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/kritiosboy.jpg\">Kritios Boy<\/a>, c. 480 B.C.E., the \u201cSevere Style\u201d features realistic anatomy, serious expressions, pouty lips, and thick eyelids.\u00a0For painters, the development of perspective and multiple ground lines enriched compositions, as can be seen on the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/niobid-krater\/\">Niobid Painter\u2019s vase<\/a>\u00a0in the Louvre (image below).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1657\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"938\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/14086211296_96566ba4cb_k-1.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1657\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image132.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Greek terracotta vase displayed in a glass case within a museum gallery. Vase features red-figure artwork depicting human and mythological figures, surrounded by other similar pottery pieces on illuminated shelves in the background.\" width=\"938\" height=\"600\" \/><\/a> Niobid Painter, <em>Niobid Krater<\/em>, Attic red-figure calyx-krater, c. 460\u201350 B.C.E., 54 x 56 cm (Mus\u00e9e du Louvre, Paris; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/nsKvS1\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nDuring the \u201cHigh Classical Period\u201d (450\u2013400 B.C.E.), there was great artistic success: from the innovative structures on the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-parthenon-athens\/\">Acropolis<\/a>\u00a0to Polykleitos\u2019 visual and cerebral manifestation of idealization in his sculpture of a young man holding a spear, the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/polykleitos-doryphoros-spear-bearer\/\"><em>Doryphoros<\/em>\u00a0or \u201cCanon<\/a>\u201d (image below).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1658\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1430\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/7751597926_e38ef7e9b7_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1658\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image133.jpeg\" alt=\"Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) nude youthful male sculpture carved from marble without paint on its current surface. The figure stands in contrapposto stance with his left arm lifted and bent at a 90 degree angle. \" width=\"1430\" height=\"1047\" \/><\/a> Polykleitos,\u00a0<em>Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer)<\/em>\u00a0or<em> The Canon<\/em>, c. 450\u201340 B.C.E., ancient Roman marble copy found in Pompeii of the lost bronze original, 211 cm (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/cNYY17\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"early-classical-kritios-boy\">Early Classical: Kritios Boy<\/h2>\r\nFollowing war with the Persians, this highly naturalistic sculpture was buried out of respect.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Q5IWDhXtsmE\r\n<h2 id=\"contrapposto-explained\">Contrapposto explained<\/h2>\r\nThe ancient Greeks mastered the naturalistic representation of the human body, and the Renaissance revived it. Although these particular objects featured in the video may not have been known in the Renaissance, the ideas and form of contrapposto were revived in the Italian Renaissance.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=5vK7Z2Odnc0\r\n<h2 id=\"early-classical-artemision-zeus-or-poseidon\">Early Classical: Artemision Zeus or Poseidon<\/h2>\r\nThis bronze god sank to the bottom of the sea where he sat for millennia, but who is he and what can he tell us?\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=zqb4Zvb5PNA\r\n<h2 id=\"high-classical-polykleitos-doryphoros-spear-bearer\">High Classical: Polykleitos,\u00a0<em>Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer)<\/em><\/h2>\r\nFor the ancient Greeks, the human body was perfect.\u00a0Explore this example of the mathematical source of ideal beauty.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=zojMBDSiNIU\r\n<h2 id=\"high-classical-myron-discobolus-discus-thrower\">High Classical, Myron,\u00a0Discobolus (Discus Thrower)<\/h2>\r\nCoiled with athletic energy, balance, and the promise of movement, see the potential of an idealized human body.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=OhJKDqZgNXg\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1659\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1136\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1659\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image134.jpeg\" alt=\"Nude male sculpture showing in the act of throwing a discuss\" width=\"1136\" height=\"1515\" \/> Myron,\u00a0<em>Discobolus (Discus Thrower)<\/em>, Roman copy of an ancient Greek bronze from c. 450 B.C.E., Classical Period (Palazzo Massimo alle Terme) (Photo: Chelsea Wright, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nMyron\u2019s <em>Discus Thrower<\/em> is a life-size <strong>scale<\/strong> <strong>three-dimensional<\/strong> sculpture. Rather than the illusion of <strong>pictorial space<\/strong>, the sculpture occupies real <strong>space<\/strong>. In contrast to the closed-form sculptures of the Ancient Egyptians and the Archaic Greek kouros figures, the <em>Discus Thrower<\/em> is an <strong>open form sculpture<\/strong>. It projects into and engages with the surrounding space. Myron\u2019s <strong>composition<\/strong> navigates between <strong>naturalism<\/strong> with the careful study of human anatomy and <strong>idealism<\/strong> with the perfection of the heroic nude human body and expressionless face. All characteristics of the Classical Greek world. Using <strong>curvilinear lines<\/strong> and <strong>diagonal angles<\/strong>, Myron\u2019s <em>Discus Thrower<\/em> shows us the dynamism of the human body in action.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"introduction-to-ancient-greek-architecture\">Introduction to Ancient Greek architecture<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1660\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/15161377958_122e212946_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1660\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image135.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of the Erechtheion, an ancient Greek temple on the Acropolis of Athens, showcasing its iconic Caryatids\u2014six draped female figures serving as architectural supports. The structure features white marble columns and walls, set against a clear blue sky with scattered ruins and greenery in the foreground.\" width=\"870\" height=\"593\" \/><\/a> <a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-erechtheion\/\">The Erechtheion<\/a>, 421\u2013405 B.C.E. (Classical Greek), Acropolis, Athens (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/p6L2sf\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nFor most of us, architecture is easy to take for granted. It\u2019s everywhere in our daily lives\u2014sometimes elegant, other times shabby, but generally ubiquitous. How often do we stop to examine and contemplate its form and style? Stopping for that contemplation offers not only the opportunity to understand one\u2019s daily surroundings but also to appreciate the connection that exists between architectural forms in our own time and those from the past. Architectural tradition and design have the ability to link disparate cultures together over time and space\u2014and this is certainly true of the legacy of architectural forms created by the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-greece-an-introduction\/\">ancient Greeks<\/a>.\r\n<h3 id=\"where-and-when\">Where and when<\/h3>\r\nGreek architecture refers to the architecture of the Greek-speaking peoples who inhabited the Greek mainland and the Peloponnese, the islands of the Aegean Sea, the Greek colonies in Ionia (coastal Asia Minor), and Magna Graecia (Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily).\r\n\r\nGreek architecture stretches from c. 900 B.C.E. to the first century C.E., with the earliest extant stone architecture dating to the seventh century B.C.E.\r\n\r\nGreek architecture influenced\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/roman-architecture\/\">Roman architecture<\/a>\u00a0and architects in profound ways, such that Roman Imperial architecture adopts and incorporates many Greek elements into its own practice. An overview of basic building typologies demonstrates the range and diversity of Greek architecture.\r\n<h3 id=\"temple\">Temple<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1661\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Roman1-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1661\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image136.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Greek temple Hera II with Doric columns, showcasing classical architecture under clear blue sky. The structure features a rectangular layout with multiple columns on all sides, surrounded by grassy terrain and scattered stone ruins.\" width=\"870\" height=\"649\" \/><\/a> \u201cHera II,\u201d c. 460 B.C.E., 24.26 x 59.98 m, Greek, Doric temple from the classical period likely dedicated to Hera, Paestum (Latin) previously Poseidonia (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/profzucker\/8026900360\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe most recognizably \u201cGreek\u201d structure is the temple (even though the architecture of Greek temples is actually quite\u00a0diverse). The Greeks referred to temples with the term \u1f41 \u03bd\u03b1\u03cc\u03c2 (<em>ho na\u00f3s<\/em>), meaning \u201cdwelling,\u201d temple derives from the Latin term,\u00a0<em>templum<\/em>. The earliest shrines were built to honor divinities and were made from materials such as wood and mud brick\u2014materials that typically don\u2019t survive very long. The basic form of the\u00a0<em>naos<\/em>\u00a0(the interior room that held the cult statue of the God or Gods) emerges as early as the tenth century B.C.E. as a simple, rectangular room with projecting walls (<em>antae<\/em>) that created a shallow porch. This basic form remained unchanged in its concept for centuries. In the eighth century B.C.E., Greek architecture begins to make the move from ephemeral materials (wood, mud brick, thatch) to permanent materials (namely, stone).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1662\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1097\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1662\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image137.jpeg\" alt=\"Diagram illustrating three classical Greek architectural column orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Each column is labeled with key structural components and decorative elements, such as pediment, capital, shaft, and base, highlighting distinctive features like triglyphs in Doric, volutes in Ionic, and acanthus leaves in Corinthian.\" width=\"1097\" height=\"812\" \/> The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek-architectural-orders\/\">Greek Architectural Orders<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nDuring\u00a0the Archaic period, the tenets of the Doric order of architecture in the Greek mainland became firmly established, leading to a wave of monumental temple building during the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E. Greek city-states invested substantial resources in temple building\u2014as they competed with each other not just in strategic and economic terms, but also in their architecture. For example, Athens devoted enormous resources to the construction of the\u00a0Acropolis\u00a0in the 5th century B.C.E.\u2014in part so that Athenians could be confident that the temples built to honor their gods surpassed anything that their rival states could offer.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1663\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/12044641115_c41cd082ce_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1663\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image138.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of the Parthenon, an ancient Greek temple on the Acropolis of Athens, showcasing its iconic Doric columns and partially ruined structure. Scaffolding visible inside indicates ongoing restoration work, with scattered stone ruins in the foreground under a clear blue sky.\" width=\"870\" height=\"586\" \/><\/a> Iktinos and Kallikrates, The Parthenon, Athens, 447\u2013432 B.C.E. (photo: Steven Zucker, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe multi-phase architectural development of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/courses\/greek-sanctuaries\/\">sanctuaries<\/a>\u00a0such as that of Hera on the island of Samos demonstrates not only the change that occurred in construction techniques over time but also how the Greeks re-used sacred spaces\u2014with the later phases built directly atop the preceding ones. Perhaps the fullest, and most famous, expression of Classical Greek temple architecture is\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-parthenon-athens\/\">the Periclean Parthenon of Athens<\/a>\u2014a Doric order structure, the Parthenon represents the maturity of the Greek classical form.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1664\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/greek-temple-plans-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1664\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image139.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Tholos temple as an ancient circular stone structure with three standing columns set against a mountainous background, accompanied by a diagram illustrating various classical Greek temple floorplans. The diagram includes labeled black-and-white floor plans of different temple types such as anta, double anta, tholos, prostyle, amphiprostyle, dipteral, peripteral, pseudoperipteral, and pseudo-dipteral, highlighting architectural variations in column placement.\" width=\"870\" height=\"420\" \/><\/a> Left: Tholos temple, sanctuary of Athena Pronaia, 4th century B.C.E., Delphi, Greece (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Delfos_templo_Delphi_Temple_Tholos_cazzul.JPG\">kufoleto<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 3.0<\/a>); right: Greek temple plans (diagram:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Greek_temples.svg\">B. Jankuloski<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nGreek temples are often categorized in terms of their ground plan and the way in which the columns are arranged. A prostyle temple is a temple that has columns only at the front, while an amphiprostyle temple has columns at the front and the rear. Temples with a peripteral arrangement (from the Greek<em>\u00a0\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd<\/em>\u00a0(<em>pteron<\/em>), meaning \u201cwing\u201d) have a single line of columns arranged all around the exterior of the temple building. Dipteral temples simply have a double row of columns surrounding the building. One of the more unusual plans is the tholos, a temple with a circular ground plan; famous examples are attested at the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/sanctuary-of-apollo-at-delphi\/\">sanctuary of Apollo in Delphi<\/a>\u00a0and the sanctuary of\u00a0Asclepius\u00a0at Epidaurus.\r\n<h3 id=\"other-greek-architectural-forms\">Other Greek Architectural Forms<\/h3>\r\nOther common ancient Greek architectural forms include:\r\n\r\nStoa \u2013 Stoa (\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03ac) is a Greek architectural term that describes a covered walkway or colonnade that was usually designed for public use.\u00a0Greek city planners came to prefer the stoa as a device for framing the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-athenian-agora-and-the-experiment-in-democracy\/\">agora<\/a>\u00a0(public marketplace) of a city or town.\r\n\r\nTheater \u2013 The Greek theater was a large, open-air structure used for dramatic performance. Theaters often took advantage of hillsides and naturally sloping terrain and, in general, utilized the panoramic landscape as the backdrop to the stage itself.\r\n\r\nBouleuterion \u2013 The Bouleuterion (\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd) was an important civic building in a Greek city, as it was the meeting place of the boule (citizen council) of the city. These select representatives assembled to handle public affairs and represent the citizenry of the polis (in ancient Athens, the boule was comprised of 500 members). The Bouleuterion generally was a covered, rectilinear building with stepped seating surrounding a central speaker\u2019s well in which an altar was placed.\r\n\r\nHouse \u2013 Greek houses of the Archaic and\u00a0Classical\u00a0periods were relatively simple in design. Houses usually were centered on a courtyard that would have been the scene for various ritual activities; the courtyard also provided natural light for the often small houses. The ground floor rooms would have included kitchen and storage rooms, perhaps an animal pen and a latrine; the chief room was the andron<em>\u2014<\/em>site of the male-dominated drinking party (<em>symposion<\/em>). The quarters for women and children (<em>gynaikeion<\/em>) could be located on the second level (if present) and were, in any case, segregated from the men\u2019s area.\r\n\r\nStadium \u2013 The Greek stadium (derived from\u00a0<em>stadion<\/em>, a Greek measurement equivalent to c. 578 feet or 176 meters) was the location of foot races held as part of sacred games; these structures are often found in the context of sanctuaries. Long and narrow, with a horseshoe shape, the stadium occupied reasonably flat terrain.\r\n\r\nGymnasium \u2013 The gymnasium (from the Greek term\u00a0<em>gymn\u00f3s<\/em>\u00a0meaning \u201cnaked\u201d) was a training center for athletes who participated in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/olympic-games\/\">public games<\/a>.\r\n\r\nPalaestra \u2013 The palaestra (\u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1) was an exercise facility originally connected with the training of wrestlers. These complexes were generally rectilinear in plan, with a colonnade framing a central, open space.\r\n\r\nAltar \u2013 Since blood sacrifice was a key component of Greek ritual practice, an altar was essential for these purposes. While altars did not necessarily need to be architecturalized, they could be, and, in some cases, they assumed a monumental scale.\r\n\r\nFountain House \u2013 The fountain house is a public building that provides access to clean drinking water and at which water jars and containers could be filled.\r\n<h2 id=\"greek-architectural-orders\">Greek architectural orders<\/h2>\r\nAn architectural order describes a style of building. In\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/classic-classical-and-classicism-explained-2\/\">classical<\/a>\u00a0architecture, each order is readily identifiable by means of its proportions and profiles, as well as by various aesthetic details. The style of column employed serves as a useful index of the style itself, so identifying the order of the column will then, in turn, situate the order employed in the structure as a whole. The classical orders\u2014described by the labels Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian\u2014do not merely serve as descriptors for the remains of ancient buildings, but as an index to the architectural and aesthetic development of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-greek-architecture\/\">Greek architecture<\/a>\u00a0itself.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-doric-order\">The Doric order<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1665\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/DoricOrderAnnotated.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1665\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image140.jpeg\" alt=\"Diagram of a classical Doric column structure highlighting architectural elements such as stylobate, capital, fluting, architrave, frieze, metope, and triglyph within the entablature. Red boxes and arrows emphasize key components with labels for clear identification of each part.\" width=\"870\" height=\"811\" \/><\/a> Doric order (underlying image from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Doric-order-schematic-elevation.tif\">Alfred D. Hamlin<\/a>,\u00a0College Histories of Art History of Architecture, 1915)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Doric order is the earliest of the three Classical orders of architecture and represents an important moment in Mediterranean architecture when monumental construction made the transition from impermanent materials (i.e. wood) to permanent materials, namely stone. The Doric order is characterized by a plain, unadorned column capital and a column that rests directly on the stylobate of the temple without a base. The Doric entablature includes a frieze composed of\u00a0triglyphs\u00a0and\u00a0metopes. The columns are fluted and are of sturdy, if not stocky, proportions.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1666\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1429\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/parthenon-grid-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1666\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image141.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Parthenon temple ruins in Athens, showcasing ancient Greek Doric columns and partially intact entablature under clear blue sky. Scaffolding visible inside structure indicates ongoing restoration efforts on this historic landmark.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"857\" \/><\/a> Iktinos and Kallikrates, The Parthenon, 447\u2013432 B.C.E., Athens (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/jmkNyV\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Doric order emerged on the Greek mainland during the course of the late seventh century B.C.E. and remained the predominant order for Greek temple construction through the early fifth century B.C.E., although notable buildings of the Classical period\u2014especially the canonical\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-parthenon-athens\/\">Parthenon<\/a>\u00a0in Athens\u2014still employ it. By 575 B.C.E the order may be properly identified, with some of the earliest surviving elements being the metope plaques from the Temple of Apollo at Thermon. Other early, but fragmentary, examples include the sanctuary of Hera at Argos,\u00a0votive\u00a0capitals from the island of Aegina, as well as early Doric capitals that were a part of the Temple of Athena Pronaia at Delphi in central Greece. The Doric order finds perhaps its fullest expression in the Parthenon (c. 447\u2013432 B.C.E.) at Athens designed by Iktinos and Kallikrates.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-ionic-order\">The Ionic order<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1667\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/5175918109_d86a684ef4_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1667\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image142.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a classical Ionic column capital from the North Porch of the Erechtheion showcasing detailed volutes and decorative floral patterns. The column features fluted shaft and intricate carvings, highlighting ancient Greek architectural design.\" width=\"870\" height=\"637\" \/><\/a> Ionic Capital, North Porch of the Erechtheion (Erechtheum), Acropolis, Athens, marble, 421\u2013407 B.C.E. (British Museum; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/8TnW8p\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAs its name suggests, the Ionic Order originated in Ionia, a coastal region of central Anatolia (today Turkey) where a number of ancient Greek settlements were located. Volutes (scroll-like ornaments) characterize the Ionic capital and a base supports the column, unlike the Doric order. The Ionic order developed in Ionia during the mid-sixth century B.C.E. and had been transmitted to mainland Greece by the fifth century B.C.E. Among the earliest examples of the Ionic capital is the inscribed votive column from Naxos, dating to the end of the seventh century B.C.E.\r\n\r\nThe monumental temple dedicated to Hera on the island of Samos, built by the architect Rhoikos c. 570\u2013560 B.C.E., was the first of the great Ionic buildings, although it was destroyed by earthquake in short order. The sixth century B.C.E. Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, a wonder of the ancient world, was also an Ionic design. In Athens, the Ionic order influences some elements of the Parthenon (447\u2013432 B.C.E.), notably the Ionic frieze that encircles the\u00a0cella\u00a0of the temple. Ionic columns are also employed in the interior of the monumental gateway to the Acropolis known as the Propylaia (c. 437\u2013432 B.C.E.). The Ionic was promoted to an exterior order in the construction of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-erechtheion\/\">Erechtheion<\/a>\u00a0(c. 421\u2013405 B.C.E.) on the Athenian Acropolis.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1668\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1429\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/15161240180_a3fbe715bd_o-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1668\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image143.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of East porch of the Erechtheion featuring six tall, fluted columns with Ionic capitals and a partially intact entablature. Background shows a sprawling cityscape under a clear blue sky, highlighting contrast between historic architecture and modern urban environment.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"956\" \/><\/a> East porch of the Erechtheion, 421\u2013407 B.C.E., marble, Acropolis, Athens (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/p6KjuL\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Ionic order is notable for its graceful proportions, giving a more slender and elegant profile than the Doric order. The ancient Roman architect\u00a0Vitruvius\u00a0compared the Doric module to a sturdy, male body, while the Ionic was possessed of more graceful, feminine proportions. The Ionic order incorporates a running frieze of continuous sculptural relief, as opposed to the Doric frieze composed of triglyphs and metopes.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-corinthian-order\">The Corinthian order<\/h3>\r\nThe Corinthian order is both the latest and the most elaborate of the Classical orders of architecture. The order was employed in both Greek and Roman architecture, with minor variations, and gave rise, in turn, to the Composite order. As the name suggests, the origins of the order were connected in antiquity with the Greek city-state of Corinth where, according to the architectural writer Vitruvius, the sculptor Callimachus drew a set of acanthus leaves surrounding a votive basket (Vitr. 4.1.9\u201310). In archaeological terms, the earliest known Corinthian capital comes from the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae and dates to c. 427 B.C.E.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1669\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1200\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/main-image.jpeg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1669\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image144.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Corinthian column capital featuring intricate carvings, including a central winged figure resembling a griffin or mythical creature. The capital displays symmetrical floral and geometric patterns with a weathered, beige surface.\" width=\"1200\" height=\"869\" \/><\/a> Corinthian column capital 4th\u20133rd century B.C.E. (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/256243\">The Metropolitan Museum of Art<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe defining element of the Corinthian order is its elaborate, carved capital, which incorporates even more vegetal elements than the Ionic order does. The stylized, carved leaves of an acanthus plant grow around the capital, generally terminating just below the abacus. The Romans favored the Corinthian order, perhaps due to its slender properties.\r\n<h2 id=\"the-parthenon-athens\">The Parthenon, Athens<\/h2>\r\nLearn about the great temple of Athena, patron of Athens, and the building\u2019s long history.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=tWDflkBZC6U\r\n<h2 id=\"phidias-parthenon-sculpture-pediments-metopes-and-frieze\">Phidias, Parthenon sculpture (pediments, metopes and frieze)<\/h2>\r\nDiscover stunning depictions of gods, heroes, and mythical beasts in the most influential sculptures in history.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=uF_W0jQ7bi0\r\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-6\">Conclusion<\/h2>\r\nThe Parthenon epitomized Greek architecture in the High Classical period. Built after the Persian Wars, the Parthenon stood as a monument to Greek victory and the rise of democracy. It embodied the Greek fascination with human proportions and featured several components of Classical Greek architecture, including the Doric order and the peripteral arrangement of columns. The Classical period of Ancient Greece saw the introduction of the contrapposto stance in sculpture and the refinement of proportions in the human body. As a new war emerged, Greece entered the Late Classical and Hellenistic periods.\r\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-6\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\r\nThe following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and are licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Conclusion<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Renee M. Gondek, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek_intro\/\">Introduction to ancient Greek art<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 14, 2016.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Monica Bulger, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/kritios-boy\/\">Kritios Boy<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, February 6, 2024.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/contrapposto\/\">Contrapposto explained<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 16, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artemision-zeus-or-poseidon\/\">Artemision Zeus or Poseidon<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 15, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/polykleitos-doryphoros-spear-bearer\/\">Polykleitos,\u00a0<em>Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer)<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, April 27, 2023.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/myron-discobolus-discus-thrower\/\">Myron,\u00a0<em>Discobolus (Discus Thrower)<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 9, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-greek-architecture\/\">Introduction to ancient Greek architecture<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek-architectural-orders\/\">Greek architectural orders<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Beth Harris, Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Rachel Kousser, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-parthenon-athens\/\">The Parthenon, Athens<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 14, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/parthenon-frieze\/\">Phidias, Parthenon sculpture (pediments, metopes and frieze)<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, November 25, 2015.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-6\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\n<p>The epitome of Ancient Greek art and architecture dates to the Classical era. In the Classical period, increasing attention was paid to the naturalism of the human body. The contrapposto, the concept of <em>symmetria<\/em>, and open form sculpture were introduced with pieces like the <em>Kritios Boy, Doryphoros,<\/em> and <em>Diskobolos<\/em>. Re-built during the Classical period, the Parthenon with its marble sculptures stood as a testament to Ancient Greek ideals and the emerging concept of democracy.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-6\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Kritios Boy<\/em>, from the Acropolis, Athens, c. 480 B.C.E., Early Classical, Severe style<\/li>\n<li><em>Artemision Zeus<\/em> or <em>Poseidon<\/em>, c. 460 B.C.E., bronze, Early Classical, Severe style, recovered from a shipwreck off Cape Artemision<\/li>\n<li>Polykleitos,\u00a0<em>Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer)<\/em>, Roman marble copy after a Greek bronze original from c.\u00a0450\u2013440 B.C.E., Classical Period<\/li>\n<li>Myron,\u00a0<em>Discobolus (Discus Thrower)<\/em>, Roman copy of an ancient Greek bronze from c. 450 B.C.E., Classical Period<\/li>\n<li>Iktinos and Kallikrates, <em>Parthenon<\/em>, Acropolis, Athens, Greece 447\u2013432 B.C.E., Classical Period<\/li>\n<li><em>Centauromachy<\/em>, metope from the south frieze of the Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, Greece, c. 447-438 B.C.E., marble, Classical Period<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"term-list-6\">Term List<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Classical Period<\/li>\n<li>Early Classical\/Severe Style<\/li>\n<li>High Classical Period<\/li>\n<li>Persian Wars<\/li>\n<li>Contrapposto<\/li>\n<li>The Canon<\/li>\n<li>Palestra<\/li>\n<li>Temple<\/li>\n<li><em>Naos<\/em><\/li>\n<li><em>Antae<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Peripteral temple<\/li>\n<li><em>Stoa<\/em><\/li>\n<li><em>Agora<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Doric order<\/li>\n<li>Frieze<\/li>\n<li>Triglyphs<\/li>\n<li>Metopes<\/li>\n<li>Ionic order<\/li>\n<li>Corinthian order<\/li>\n<li>Parthenon<\/li>\n<li>Democracy<\/li>\n<li>Stylobate<\/li>\n<li>Capital<\/li>\n<li>Athena<\/li>\n<li>Pericles<\/li>\n<li>Delian league<\/li>\n<li>Entasis<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"the-classical-period-introduction-480479323-b.c.e.\">The Classical Period Introduction (480\/479\u2013323 B.C.E.)<\/h2>\n<p>Though experimentation in realistic movement began before the end of the Archaic Period, it was not until the Classical Period that two- and three-dimensional forms achieved proportions and postures that were naturalistic. The \u201cEarly Classical Period\u201d (480\/479\u2013450 B.C.E., also known as the \u201cSevere Style\u201d) was a period of transition when some sculptural work displayed archaizing holdovers. As can be seen in the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/kritiosboy.jpg\">Kritios Boy<\/a>, c. 480 B.C.E., the \u201cSevere Style\u201d features realistic anatomy, serious expressions, pouty lips, and thick eyelids.\u00a0For painters, the development of perspective and multiple ground lines enriched compositions, as can be seen on the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/niobid-krater\/\">Niobid Painter\u2019s vase<\/a>\u00a0in the Louvre (image below).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1657\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1657\" style=\"width: 938px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/14086211296_96566ba4cb_k-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1657\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image132.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Greek terracotta vase displayed in a glass case within a museum gallery. Vase features red-figure artwork depicting human and mythological figures, surrounded by other similar pottery pieces on illuminated shelves in the background.\" width=\"938\" height=\"600\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image132.jpeg 938w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image132-300x192.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image132-768x491.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image132-65x42.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image132-225x144.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image132-350x224.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 938px) 100vw, 938px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1657\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Niobid Painter, <em>Niobid Krater<\/em>, Attic red-figure calyx-krater, c. 460\u201350 B.C.E., 54 x 56 cm (Mus\u00e9e du Louvre, Paris; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/nsKvS1\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>During the \u201cHigh Classical Period\u201d (450\u2013400 B.C.E.), there was great artistic success: from the innovative structures on the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-parthenon-athens\/\">Acropolis<\/a>\u00a0to Polykleitos\u2019 visual and cerebral manifestation of idealization in his sculpture of a young man holding a spear, the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/polykleitos-doryphoros-spear-bearer\/\"><em>Doryphoros<\/em>\u00a0or \u201cCanon<\/a>\u201d (image below).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1658\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1658\" style=\"width: 1430px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/7751597926_e38ef7e9b7_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1658\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image133.jpeg\" alt=\"Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer) nude youthful male sculpture carved from marble without paint on its current surface. The figure stands in contrapposto stance with his left arm lifted and bent at a 90 degree angle.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"1047\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image133.jpeg 1430w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image133-300x220.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image133-1024x750.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image133-768x562.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image133-65x48.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image133-225x165.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image133-350x256.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1430px) 100vw, 1430px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1658\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Polykleitos,\u00a0<em>Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer)<\/em>\u00a0or<em> The Canon<\/em>, c. 450\u201340 B.C.E., ancient Roman marble copy found in Pompeii of the lost bronze original, 211 cm (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/cNYY17\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 id=\"early-classical-kritios-boy\">Early Classical: Kritios Boy<\/h2>\n<p>Following war with the Persians, this highly naturalistic sculpture was buried out of respect.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Kritios Boy\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Q5IWDhXtsmE?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"contrapposto-explained\">Contrapposto explained<\/h2>\n<p>The ancient Greeks mastered the naturalistic representation of the human body, and the Renaissance revived it. Although these particular objects featured in the video may not have been known in the Renaissance, the ideas and form of contrapposto were revived in the Italian Renaissance.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Contrapposto explained\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/5vK7Z2Odnc0?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"early-classical-artemision-zeus-or-poseidon\">Early Classical: Artemision Zeus or Poseidon<\/h2>\n<p>This bronze god sank to the bottom of the sea where he sat for millennia, but who is he and what can he tell us?<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"Artemision Zeus or Poseidon\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/zqb4Zvb5PNA?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"high-classical-polykleitos-doryphoros-spear-bearer\">High Classical: Polykleitos,\u00a0<em>Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer)<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>For the ancient Greeks, the human body was perfect.\u00a0Explore this example of the mathematical source of ideal beauty.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-4\" title=\"Polykleitos&#39;s Doryphoros, ideal beauty in ancient Greece\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/zojMBDSiNIU?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"high-classical-myron-discobolus-discus-thrower\">High Classical, Myron,\u00a0Discobolus (Discus Thrower)<\/h2>\n<p>Coiled with athletic energy, balance, and the promise of movement, see the potential of an idealized human body.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-5\" title=\"Myron, Discobolus (Discus Thrower), Roman copy of an ancient Greek bronze\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/OhJKDqZgNXg?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1659\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1659\" style=\"width: 1136px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1659\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image134.jpeg\" alt=\"Nude male sculpture showing in the act of throwing a discuss\" width=\"1136\" height=\"1515\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image134.jpeg 1136w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image134-225x300.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image134-768x1024.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image134-65x87.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image134-350x467.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1136px) 100vw, 1136px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1659\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Myron,\u00a0<em>Discobolus (Discus Thrower)<\/em>, Roman copy of an ancient Greek bronze from c. 450 B.C.E., Classical Period (Palazzo Massimo alle Terme) (Photo: Chelsea Wright, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>Myron\u2019s <em>Discus Thrower<\/em> is a life-size <strong>scale<\/strong> <strong>three-dimensional<\/strong> sculpture. Rather than the illusion of <strong>pictorial space<\/strong>, the sculpture occupies real <strong>space<\/strong>. In contrast to the closed-form sculptures of the Ancient Egyptians and the Archaic Greek kouros figures, the <em>Discus Thrower<\/em> is an <strong>open form sculpture<\/strong>. It projects into and engages with the surrounding space. Myron\u2019s <strong>composition<\/strong> navigates between <strong>naturalism<\/strong> with the careful study of human anatomy and <strong>idealism<\/strong> with the perfection of the heroic nude human body and expressionless face. All characteristics of the Classical Greek world. Using <strong>curvilinear lines<\/strong> and <strong>diagonal angles<\/strong>, Myron\u2019s <em>Discus Thrower<\/em> shows us the dynamism of the human body in action.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"introduction-to-ancient-greek-architecture\">Introduction to Ancient Greek architecture<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1660\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1660\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/15161377958_122e212946_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1660\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image135.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of the Erechtheion, an ancient Greek temple on the Acropolis of Athens, showcasing its iconic Caryatids\u2014six draped female figures serving as architectural supports. The structure features white marble columns and walls, set against a clear blue sky with scattered ruins and greenery in the foreground.\" width=\"870\" height=\"593\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image135.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image135-300x204.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image135-768x523.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image135-65x44.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image135-225x153.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image135-350x239.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1660\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-erechtheion\/\">The Erechtheion<\/a>, 421\u2013405 B.C.E. (Classical Greek), Acropolis, Athens (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/p6L2sf\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>For most of us, architecture is easy to take for granted. It\u2019s everywhere in our daily lives\u2014sometimes elegant, other times shabby, but generally ubiquitous. How often do we stop to examine and contemplate its form and style? Stopping for that contemplation offers not only the opportunity to understand one\u2019s daily surroundings but also to appreciate the connection that exists between architectural forms in our own time and those from the past. Architectural tradition and design have the ability to link disparate cultures together over time and space\u2014and this is certainly true of the legacy of architectural forms created by the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-greece-an-introduction\/\">ancient Greeks<\/a>.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"where-and-when\">Where and when<\/h3>\n<p>Greek architecture refers to the architecture of the Greek-speaking peoples who inhabited the Greek mainland and the Peloponnese, the islands of the Aegean Sea, the Greek colonies in Ionia (coastal Asia Minor), and Magna Graecia (Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily).<\/p>\n<p>Greek architecture stretches from c. 900 B.C.E. to the first century C.E., with the earliest extant stone architecture dating to the seventh century B.C.E.<\/p>\n<p>Greek architecture influenced\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/roman-architecture\/\">Roman architecture<\/a>\u00a0and architects in profound ways, such that Roman Imperial architecture adopts and incorporates many Greek elements into its own practice. An overview of basic building typologies demonstrates the range and diversity of Greek architecture.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"temple\">Temple<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1661\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1661\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Roman1-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1661\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image136.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Greek temple Hera II with Doric columns, showcasing classical architecture under clear blue sky. The structure features a rectangular layout with multiple columns on all sides, surrounded by grassy terrain and scattered stone ruins.\" width=\"870\" height=\"649\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image136.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image136-300x224.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image136-768x573.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image136-65x48.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image136-225x168.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image136-350x261.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1661\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u201cHera II,\u201d c. 460 B.C.E., 24.26 x 59.98 m, Greek, Doric temple from the classical period likely dedicated to Hera, Paestum (Latin) previously Poseidonia (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/profzucker\/8026900360\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The most recognizably \u201cGreek\u201d structure is the temple (even though the architecture of Greek temples is actually quite\u00a0diverse). The Greeks referred to temples with the term \u1f41 \u03bd\u03b1\u03cc\u03c2 (<em>ho na\u00f3s<\/em>), meaning \u201cdwelling,\u201d temple derives from the Latin term,\u00a0<em>templum<\/em>. The earliest shrines were built to honor divinities and were made from materials such as wood and mud brick\u2014materials that typically don\u2019t survive very long. The basic form of the\u00a0<em>naos<\/em>\u00a0(the interior room that held the cult statue of the God or Gods) emerges as early as the tenth century B.C.E. as a simple, rectangular room with projecting walls (<em>antae<\/em>) that created a shallow porch. This basic form remained unchanged in its concept for centuries. In the eighth century B.C.E., Greek architecture begins to make the move from ephemeral materials (wood, mud brick, thatch) to permanent materials (namely, stone).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1662\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1662\" style=\"width: 1097px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1662\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image137.jpeg\" alt=\"Diagram illustrating three classical Greek architectural column orders: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Each column is labeled with key structural components and decorative elements, such as pediment, capital, shaft, and base, highlighting distinctive features like triglyphs in Doric, volutes in Ionic, and acanthus leaves in Corinthian.\" width=\"1097\" height=\"812\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image137.jpeg 1097w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image137-300x222.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image137-1024x758.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image137-768x568.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image137-65x48.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image137-225x167.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image137-350x259.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1097px) 100vw, 1097px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1662\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek-architectural-orders\/\">Greek Architectural Orders<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>During\u00a0the Archaic period, the tenets of the Doric order of architecture in the Greek mainland became firmly established, leading to a wave of monumental temple building during the sixth and fifth centuries B.C.E. Greek city-states invested substantial resources in temple building\u2014as they competed with each other not just in strategic and economic terms, but also in their architecture. For example, Athens devoted enormous resources to the construction of the\u00a0Acropolis\u00a0in the 5th century B.C.E.\u2014in part so that Athenians could be confident that the temples built to honor their gods surpassed anything that their rival states could offer.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1663\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1663\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/12044641115_c41cd082ce_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1663\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image138.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of the Parthenon, an ancient Greek temple on the Acropolis of Athens, showcasing its iconic Doric columns and partially ruined structure. Scaffolding visible inside indicates ongoing restoration work, with scattered stone ruins in the foreground under a clear blue sky.\" width=\"870\" height=\"586\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image138.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image138-300x202.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image138-768x517.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image138-65x44.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image138-225x152.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image138-350x236.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1663\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Iktinos and Kallikrates, The Parthenon, Athens, 447\u2013432 B.C.E. (photo: Steven Zucker, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The multi-phase architectural development of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/courses\/greek-sanctuaries\/\">sanctuaries<\/a>\u00a0such as that of Hera on the island of Samos demonstrates not only the change that occurred in construction techniques over time but also how the Greeks re-used sacred spaces\u2014with the later phases built directly atop the preceding ones. Perhaps the fullest, and most famous, expression of Classical Greek temple architecture is\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-parthenon-athens\/\">the Periclean Parthenon of Athens<\/a>\u2014a Doric order structure, the Parthenon represents the maturity of the Greek classical form.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1664\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1664\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/greek-temple-plans-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1664\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image139.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Tholos temple as an ancient circular stone structure with three standing columns set against a mountainous background, accompanied by a diagram illustrating various classical Greek temple floorplans. The diagram includes labeled black-and-white floor plans of different temple types such as anta, double anta, tholos, prostyle, amphiprostyle, dipteral, peripteral, pseudoperipteral, and pseudo-dipteral, highlighting architectural variations in column placement.\" width=\"870\" height=\"420\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image139.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image139-300x145.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image139-768x371.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image139-65x31.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image139-225x109.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image139-350x169.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1664\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Left: Tholos temple, sanctuary of Athena Pronaia, 4th century B.C.E., Delphi, Greece (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Delfos_templo_Delphi_Temple_Tholos_cazzul.JPG\">kufoleto<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 3.0<\/a>); right: Greek temple plans (diagram:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Greek_temples.svg\">B. Jankuloski<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Greek temples are often categorized in terms of their ground plan and the way in which the columns are arranged. A prostyle temple is a temple that has columns only at the front, while an amphiprostyle temple has columns at the front and the rear. Temples with a peripteral arrangement (from the Greek<em>\u00a0\u03c0\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd<\/em>\u00a0(<em>pteron<\/em>), meaning \u201cwing\u201d) have a single line of columns arranged all around the exterior of the temple building. Dipteral temples simply have a double row of columns surrounding the building. One of the more unusual plans is the tholos, a temple with a circular ground plan; famous examples are attested at the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/sanctuary-of-apollo-at-delphi\/\">sanctuary of Apollo in Delphi<\/a>\u00a0and the sanctuary of\u00a0Asclepius\u00a0at Epidaurus.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"other-greek-architectural-forms\">Other Greek Architectural Forms<\/h3>\n<p>Other common ancient Greek architectural forms include:<\/p>\n<p>Stoa \u2013 Stoa (\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03ac) is a Greek architectural term that describes a covered walkway or colonnade that was usually designed for public use.\u00a0Greek city planners came to prefer the stoa as a device for framing the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-athenian-agora-and-the-experiment-in-democracy\/\">agora<\/a>\u00a0(public marketplace) of a city or town.<\/p>\n<p>Theater \u2013 The Greek theater was a large, open-air structure used for dramatic performance. Theaters often took advantage of hillsides and naturally sloping terrain and, in general, utilized the panoramic landscape as the backdrop to the stage itself.<\/p>\n<p>Bouleuterion \u2013 The Bouleuterion (\u03b2\u03bf\u03c5\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd) was an important civic building in a Greek city, as it was the meeting place of the boule (citizen council) of the city. These select representatives assembled to handle public affairs and represent the citizenry of the polis (in ancient Athens, the boule was comprised of 500 members). The Bouleuterion generally was a covered, rectilinear building with stepped seating surrounding a central speaker\u2019s well in which an altar was placed.<\/p>\n<p>House \u2013 Greek houses of the Archaic and\u00a0Classical\u00a0periods were relatively simple in design. Houses usually were centered on a courtyard that would have been the scene for various ritual activities; the courtyard also provided natural light for the often small houses. The ground floor rooms would have included kitchen and storage rooms, perhaps an animal pen and a latrine; the chief room was the andron<em>\u2014<\/em>site of the male-dominated drinking party (<em>symposion<\/em>). The quarters for women and children (<em>gynaikeion<\/em>) could be located on the second level (if present) and were, in any case, segregated from the men\u2019s area.<\/p>\n<p>Stadium \u2013 The Greek stadium (derived from\u00a0<em>stadion<\/em>, a Greek measurement equivalent to c. 578 feet or 176 meters) was the location of foot races held as part of sacred games; these structures are often found in the context of sanctuaries. Long and narrow, with a horseshoe shape, the stadium occupied reasonably flat terrain.<\/p>\n<p>Gymnasium \u2013 The gymnasium (from the Greek term\u00a0<em>gymn\u00f3s<\/em>\u00a0meaning \u201cnaked\u201d) was a training center for athletes who participated in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/olympic-games\/\">public games<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>Palaestra \u2013 The palaestra (\u03c0\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03af\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1) was an exercise facility originally connected with the training of wrestlers. These complexes were generally rectilinear in plan, with a colonnade framing a central, open space.<\/p>\n<p>Altar \u2013 Since blood sacrifice was a key component of Greek ritual practice, an altar was essential for these purposes. While altars did not necessarily need to be architecturalized, they could be, and, in some cases, they assumed a monumental scale.<\/p>\n<p>Fountain House \u2013 The fountain house is a public building that provides access to clean drinking water and at which water jars and containers could be filled.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"greek-architectural-orders\">Greek architectural orders<\/h2>\n<p>An architectural order describes a style of building. In\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/classic-classical-and-classicism-explained-2\/\">classical<\/a>\u00a0architecture, each order is readily identifiable by means of its proportions and profiles, as well as by various aesthetic details. The style of column employed serves as a useful index of the style itself, so identifying the order of the column will then, in turn, situate the order employed in the structure as a whole. The classical orders\u2014described by the labels Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian\u2014do not merely serve as descriptors for the remains of ancient buildings, but as an index to the architectural and aesthetic development of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-greek-architecture\/\">Greek architecture<\/a>\u00a0itself.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-doric-order\">The Doric order<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1665\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1665\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/DoricOrderAnnotated.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1665\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image140.jpeg\" alt=\"Diagram of a classical Doric column structure highlighting architectural elements such as stylobate, capital, fluting, architrave, frieze, metope, and triglyph within the entablature. Red boxes and arrows emphasize key components with labels for clear identification of each part.\" width=\"870\" height=\"811\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image140.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image140-300x280.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image140-768x716.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image140-65x61.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image140-225x210.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image140-350x326.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1665\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Doric order (underlying image from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Doric-order-schematic-elevation.tif\">Alfred D. Hamlin<\/a>,\u00a0College Histories of Art History of Architecture, 1915)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The Doric order is the earliest of the three Classical orders of architecture and represents an important moment in Mediterranean architecture when monumental construction made the transition from impermanent materials (i.e. wood) to permanent materials, namely stone. The Doric order is characterized by a plain, unadorned column capital and a column that rests directly on the stylobate of the temple without a base. The Doric entablature includes a frieze composed of\u00a0triglyphs\u00a0and\u00a0metopes. The columns are fluted and are of sturdy, if not stocky, proportions.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1666\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1666\" style=\"width: 1429px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/parthenon-grid-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1666\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image141.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Parthenon temple ruins in Athens, showcasing ancient Greek Doric columns and partially intact entablature under clear blue sky. Scaffolding visible inside structure indicates ongoing restoration efforts on this historic landmark.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"857\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image141.jpeg 1429w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image141-300x180.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image141-1024x614.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image141-768x461.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image141-65x39.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image141-225x135.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image141-350x210.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1429px) 100vw, 1429px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1666\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Iktinos and Kallikrates, The Parthenon, 447\u2013432 B.C.E., Athens (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/jmkNyV\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The Doric order emerged on the Greek mainland during the course of the late seventh century B.C.E. and remained the predominant order for Greek temple construction through the early fifth century B.C.E., although notable buildings of the Classical period\u2014especially the canonical\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-parthenon-athens\/\">Parthenon<\/a>\u00a0in Athens\u2014still employ it. By 575 B.C.E the order may be properly identified, with some of the earliest surviving elements being the metope plaques from the Temple of Apollo at Thermon. Other early, but fragmentary, examples include the sanctuary of Hera at Argos,\u00a0votive\u00a0capitals from the island of Aegina, as well as early Doric capitals that were a part of the Temple of Athena Pronaia at Delphi in central Greece. The Doric order finds perhaps its fullest expression in the Parthenon (c. 447\u2013432 B.C.E.) at Athens designed by Iktinos and Kallikrates.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-ionic-order\">The Ionic order<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1667\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1667\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/5175918109_d86a684ef4_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1667\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image142.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a classical Ionic column capital from the North Porch of the Erechtheion showcasing detailed volutes and decorative floral patterns. The column features fluted shaft and intricate carvings, highlighting ancient Greek architectural design.\" width=\"870\" height=\"637\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image142.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image142-300x220.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image142-768x562.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image142-65x48.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image142-225x165.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image142-350x256.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1667\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Ionic Capital, North Porch of the Erechtheion (Erechtheum), Acropolis, Athens, marble, 421\u2013407 B.C.E. (British Museum; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/8TnW8p\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>As its name suggests, the Ionic Order originated in Ionia, a coastal region of central Anatolia (today Turkey) where a number of ancient Greek settlements were located. Volutes (scroll-like ornaments) characterize the Ionic capital and a base supports the column, unlike the Doric order. The Ionic order developed in Ionia during the mid-sixth century B.C.E. and had been transmitted to mainland Greece by the fifth century B.C.E. Among the earliest examples of the Ionic capital is the inscribed votive column from Naxos, dating to the end of the seventh century B.C.E.<\/p>\n<p>The monumental temple dedicated to Hera on the island of Samos, built by the architect Rhoikos c. 570\u2013560 B.C.E., was the first of the great Ionic buildings, although it was destroyed by earthquake in short order. The sixth century B.C.E. Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, a wonder of the ancient world, was also an Ionic design. In Athens, the Ionic order influences some elements of the Parthenon (447\u2013432 B.C.E.), notably the Ionic frieze that encircles the\u00a0cella\u00a0of the temple. Ionic columns are also employed in the interior of the monumental gateway to the Acropolis known as the Propylaia (c. 437\u2013432 B.C.E.). The Ionic was promoted to an exterior order in the construction of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-erechtheion\/\">Erechtheion<\/a>\u00a0(c. 421\u2013405 B.C.E.) on the Athenian Acropolis.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1668\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1668\" style=\"width: 1429px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/15161240180_a3fbe715bd_o-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1668\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image143.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of East porch of the Erechtheion featuring six tall, fluted columns with Ionic capitals and a partially intact entablature. Background shows a sprawling cityscape under a clear blue sky, highlighting contrast between historic architecture and modern urban environment.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"956\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image143.jpeg 1429w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image143-300x201.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image143-1024x685.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image143-768x514.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image143-65x43.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image143-225x151.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image143-350x234.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1429px) 100vw, 1429px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1668\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">East porch of the Erechtheion, 421\u2013407 B.C.E., marble, Acropolis, Athens (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/p6KjuL\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The Ionic order is notable for its graceful proportions, giving a more slender and elegant profile than the Doric order. The ancient Roman architect\u00a0Vitruvius\u00a0compared the Doric module to a sturdy, male body, while the Ionic was possessed of more graceful, feminine proportions. The Ionic order incorporates a running frieze of continuous sculptural relief, as opposed to the Doric frieze composed of triglyphs and metopes.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-corinthian-order\">The Corinthian order<\/h3>\n<p>The Corinthian order is both the latest and the most elaborate of the Classical orders of architecture. The order was employed in both Greek and Roman architecture, with minor variations, and gave rise, in turn, to the Composite order. As the name suggests, the origins of the order were connected in antiquity with the Greek city-state of Corinth where, according to the architectural writer Vitruvius, the sculptor Callimachus drew a set of acanthus leaves surrounding a votive basket (Vitr. 4.1.9\u201310). In archaeological terms, the earliest known Corinthian capital comes from the Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae and dates to c. 427 B.C.E.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1669\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1669\" style=\"width: 1200px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/main-image.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1669\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image144.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Corinthian column capital featuring intricate carvings, including a central winged figure resembling a griffin or mythical creature. The capital displays symmetrical floral and geometric patterns with a weathered, beige surface.\" width=\"1200\" height=\"869\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image144.jpeg 1200w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image144-300x217.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image144-1024x742.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image144-768x556.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image144-65x47.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image144-225x163.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image144-350x253.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1200px) 100vw, 1200px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1669\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Corinthian column capital 4th\u20133rd century B.C.E. (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/256243\">The Metropolitan Museum of Art<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The defining element of the Corinthian order is its elaborate, carved capital, which incorporates even more vegetal elements than the Ionic order does. The stylized, carved leaves of an acanthus plant grow around the capital, generally terminating just below the abacus. The Romans favored the Corinthian order, perhaps due to its slender properties.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"the-parthenon-athens\">The Parthenon, Athens<\/h2>\n<p>Learn about the great temple of Athena, patron of Athens, and the building\u2019s long history.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-6\" title=\"Parthenon (Acropolis)\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/tWDflkBZC6U?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"phidias-parthenon-sculpture-pediments-metopes-and-frieze\">Phidias, Parthenon sculpture (pediments, metopes and frieze)<\/h2>\n<p>Discover stunning depictions of gods, heroes, and mythical beasts in the most influential sculptures in history.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-7\" title=\"Phidias, Parthenon sculptures\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/uF_W0jQ7bi0?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-6\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n<p>The Parthenon epitomized Greek architecture in the High Classical period. Built after the Persian Wars, the Parthenon stood as a monument to Greek victory and the rise of democracy. It embodied the Greek fascination with human proportions and featured several components of Classical Greek architecture, including the Doric order and the peripteral arrangement of columns. The Classical period of Ancient Greece saw the introduction of the contrapposto stance in sculpture and the refinement of proportions in the human body. As a new war emerged, Greece entered the Late Classical and Hellenistic periods.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-6\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\n<p>The following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and are licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\n<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\n<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\n<li>Conclusion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Dr. Renee M. Gondek, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek_intro\/\">Introduction to ancient Greek art<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 14, 2016.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Monica Bulger, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/kritios-boy\/\">Kritios Boy<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, February 6, 2024.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/contrapposto\/\">Contrapposto explained<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 16, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/artemision-zeus-or-poseidon\/\">Artemision Zeus or Poseidon<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 15, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/polykleitos-doryphoros-spear-bearer\/\">Polykleitos,\u00a0<em>Doryphoros (Spear-Bearer)<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, April 27, 2023.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/myron-discobolus-discus-thrower\/\">Myron,\u00a0<em>Discobolus (Discus Thrower)<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 9, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/introduction-to-greek-architecture\/\">Introduction to ancient Greek architecture<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek-architectural-orders\/\">Greek architectural orders<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Beth Harris, Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Rachel Kousser, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-parthenon-athens\/\">The Parthenon, Athens<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 14, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/parthenon-frieze\/\">Phidias, Parthenon sculpture (pediments, metopes and frieze)<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, November 25, 2015.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"menu_order":9,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1670","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1670","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1670\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1985,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1670\/revisions\/1985"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1670\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1670"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1670"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1670"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1670"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}