{"id":1655,"date":"2026-07-16T17:29:29","date_gmt":"2026-07-16T17:29:29","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/chapter\/art-and-architecture-in-geometric-and-archaic-greece\/"},"modified":"2026-07-27T17:23:06","modified_gmt":"2026-07-27T17:23:06","slug":"art-and-architecture-in-geometric-and-archaic-greece","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/chapter\/art-and-architecture-in-geometric-and-archaic-greece\/","title":{"raw":"Art and Architecture in Geometric and Archaic Greece","rendered":"Art and Architecture in Geometric and Archaic Greece"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-5\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\r\nArt historians divide Ancient Greek history into periods that correspond to stylistic qualities. There are four general periods of Ancient Greek history: Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic. After the fall of the Myceneans, Ancient Greece entered its dark ages. During the early Geometric period, the production of pottery signaled a re-emergence of culture and a revitalization of artistry. In the following Archaic period, Ancient Greek art focused on two forms: pottery and sculpture. Multiple techniques were used to shape and paint vases in Ancient Greece. Sculptural forms focused on the Kouros and Kore, providing a glimpse of the Greek attitude toward the human body.\r\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-5\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>Dipylon Amphora<\/em>, c. 755\u2013750 B.C.E., ceramic, 160 cm, Geometric period<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Anavysos Kouros, c. 530 B.C.E., marble, Archaic period<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Peplos Kore<\/em>, from the Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 530 B.C.E., marble, Archaic period<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Exekias,\u00a0<em>Achilles and Ajax playing a dice game<\/em>, Attic black-figure amphora, found in Vulci, Italy, c. 540-530 B.C.E., Archaic period<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Euthymides,\u00a0<em>Three Revelers<\/em>, Athenian red-figure amphora, c. 510 B.C.E., Archaic period<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 id=\"term-list-5\">Term List<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Polis\/Poleis<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Panhellenic<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dark Ages<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Geometric period<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Orientalizing period<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Amphora<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Archaic period<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Kouros<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Kore<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Archaic smile<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Terracotta<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Krater<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Symposion<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Slip<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Black-figure painting<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Red-figure painting<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2 id=\"introduction-to-ancient-greek-art-with-the-geometric-period\">Introduction to Ancient Greek art with the Geometric Period<\/h2>\r\n<h3 id=\"a-shared-language-religion-and-culture\">A shared language, religion, and culture<\/h3>\r\nAncient Greece can feel strangely familiar. From the exploits of\u00a0Achilles\u00a0and\u00a0Odysseus<em>,<\/em>\u00a0to the treatises of\u00a0Aristotle, from the exacting measurements of the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-parthenon-athens\/\">Parthenon<\/a>\u00a0(image above) to the rhythmic chaos of the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/athanadoros-hagesandros-and-polydoros-of-rhodes-laocoon-and-his-sons\/\"><em>Laoco\u00f6n<\/em><\/a>\u00a0(image below), ancient Greek culture has shaped our world. Thanks largely to notable archaeological sites, well-known literary sources, and the impact of Hollywood (<em>Clash of the Titans<\/em>, for example), this civilization is embedded in our collective consciousness\u2014prompting visions of epic battles, erudite philosophers, gleaming white temples, and limbless nudes (we now know the sculptures\u2014even the ones that decorated temples like the Parthenon\u2014were brightly painted, and, of course, the fact that the figures are often missing limbs is the result of the ravages of time).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1637\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Laocoo%CC%88n-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1637\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of the Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons marble sculpture depicting three muscular male figures struggling with large serpents. The sculpture highlights intricate details of human anatomy, dynamic poses, and expressive faces, set against a plain background with a pedestal base.\" width=\"870\" height=\"521\" \/><\/a> Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,<em> Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons,<\/em> early first century C.E., marble, 7\u201910 1\/2\u2033 high (Vatican Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jdLrzT\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nDispersed around the Mediterranean and divided into self-governing units called\u00a0<em>poleis<\/em>\u00a0or\u00a0city-states, the ancient Greeks were united by a shared language, religion, and culture. Strengthening these bonds further were the so-called\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/sanctuary-of-apollo-at-delphi\/\">\u201cPanhellenic\u201d sanctuaries<\/a>\u00a0and festivals that embraced \u201call Greeks\u201d and encouraged interaction, competition, and exchange (for example the Olympics, which were held at the Panhellenic sanctuary at Olympia). Although popular modern understanding of the ancient Greek world is based on the classical art of fifth century B.C.E. Athens, it is important to recognize that Greek civilization was vast and did not develop overnight.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-dark-ages-c.-1100c.-800-b.c.e.-to-the-orientalizing-period-c.-700600-b.c.e.\">The Dark Ages (c. 1100\u2013c. 800 B.C.E.) \u00a0to the Orientalizing Period (c. 700\u2013600 B.C.E.)<\/h3>\r\nFollowing the collapse of the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-palace-and-grave-circle-a-mycenae\/\">Mycenaean citadels<\/a>\u00a0of the late Bronze Age, the Greek mainland was traditionally thought to enter a \u201cDark Age\u201d that lasted from c. 1100 until c. 800 B.C.E. Not only did the complex socio-cultural system of the Mycenaeans disappear, but also its numerous achievements (i.e., metalworking, large-scale construction, writing). The discovery and continuous excavation of a site known as\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/lefkandi.classics.ox.ac.uk\/\">Lefkandi<\/a>, however, drastically alters this impression. Located just north of Athens, Lefkandi has yielded an immense\u00a0apsidal\u00a0structure (almost fifty meters long), a massive network of graves, and two heroic burials replete with gold objects and valuable horse sacrifices. One of the most interesting artifacts, ritually buried in two separate graves, is a centaur figurine (see photos below). At fourteen inches high, the terracotta creature is composed of a equine (horse) torso made on a potter\u2019s wheel and hand-formed human limbs and features. Alluding to mythology and perhaps a particular story, this centaur embodies the cultural richness of this period.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1638\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1430\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/centaurwithhead.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1638\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image116.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of two ancient terracotta sculptures displayed against a white background. One sculpture depicts a four-legged animal with a human-like head and geometric patterns on its body, while the other shows a rounded human head with prominent ears and a blurred facial area.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"651\" \/><\/a> Centaur, c. 900 B.C.E. (Proto-Geometric period), terracotta, 14 inches high, the head was found in tomb 1 and the body was found in tomb 3 in the cemetery of Toumba, Lefkandi, Greece (detail of head photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/9nNTDP\">Dan Diffendale<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nSimilar in its adoption of narrative elements is a vase-painting likely from Thebes dating to c. 730 B.C.E. (see image below). Fully ensconced in the Geometric Period (c. 800\u2013700 B.C.E.), the imagery on the vase reflects other eighth-century artifacts, such as the\u00a0<em><a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/dipylon-amphora\/\">Dipylon Amphora<\/a>,<\/em>\u00a0with its geometric patterning and silhouetted human forms. Though simplistic, the overall scene on this vase seems to record a story. A man and woman stand beside a ship outfitted with tiers of rowers. Grasping at the stern and lifting one leg into the hull, the man turns back towards the female and takes her by the wrist. Is the couple\u00a0Theseus and Ariadne?\u00a0Is this an abduction? Perhaps Paris and Helen? Or, is the man bidding farewell to the woman and embarking on a journey as had\u00a0Odysseus and Penelope? The answer is unattainable.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1639\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1431\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/kratercouple.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1639\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image117.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Greek terracotta vessel featuring black-figure decoration depicting human figures and geometric patterns. The vessel has a rounded body with a handle, showcasing detailed silhouettes of standing and seated figures, along with ornamental motifs arranged in horizontal bands.\" width=\"1431\" height=\"680\" \/><\/a> Late Geometric Attic spouted krater (vessel for mixing water and wine), possibly from Thebes, c. 730 B.C.E., 30.5 cm high (The British Museum, London, photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/dtZEwo\">Egisto Sani<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn the Orientalizing Period (700\u2013600 B.C.E.), alongside\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/metvasedetail.jpg\">Near Eastern motifs and animal processions<\/a>, craftsmen produced more nuanced figural forms and intelligible illustrations. For example, terracotta painted plaques from the Temple of Apollo at Thermon (c. 625 B.C.E.) are some of the earliest evidence for architectural decoration in Iron Age Greece.\u00a0Once ornamenting the surface of this Doric temple (most likely as metopes), the extant panels have preserved various imagery (watch\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek-architectural-orders\/\">this video<\/a>\u00a0to learn about the Doric order). On one plaque (see image below), a male youth strides towards the right and carries a significant attribute under his right arm\u2014the severed head of the\u00a0Gorgon\u00a0Medusa (her face is visible between the right hand and right hip of the striding figure). Not only is the painter successful here in relaying a particular story, but also the figure of Perseus shows great advancement from the previous century. The limbs are fleshy, the facial features are recognizable, and the hat and winged boots appropriately equip the hero for fast travel.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1640\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/Painted_terracotta_metopes_from_Thermos_temple_of_Apollon_-_Athens_NAM_AD_2_-_01-copy.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1640\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image118.jpeg\" alt=\"Fresco fragment depicting a partially preserved figure with geometric and floral patterns, showcasing ancient artistic techniques. Colors include faded reds, blacks, and browns, with visible cracks and missing sections highlighting age and deterioration.\" width=\"870\" height=\"677\" \/><\/a> Fragment showing Perseus with the head of Medusa likely from a metope from the Temple of Apollo at Thermon, c. 630 B.C.E., painted terracotta, 87.8 cm high (National Archaeological Museum, Athens; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Painted_terracotta_metopes_from_Thermos_(temple_of_Apollon)_-_Athens_NAM_AD_2_-_01.jpg\">ArchaiOptix<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"geometric-period-dipylon-amphora\">Geometric Period: <em>Dipylon Amphora<\/em><\/h2>\r\nAs tall as a person, this pot is covered with geometric patterns and early figural representations. The <em>Dipylon Amphora<\/em> dates from the Geometric Period of Ancient Greece.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=Uwpdiq9mYME\r\n<h2 id=\"introduction-to-the-archaic-period-c.-600480479-b.c.e.\">Introduction to the Archaic Period (c. 600\u2013480\/479 B.C.E.)<\/h2>\r\nWhile Greek artisans continued to develop their individual crafts, storytelling ability, and more realistic portrayals of human figures throughout the Archaic Period, the city of Athens witnessed the rise and fall of tyrants and the introduction of democracy by the statesman Kleisthenes in the years 508 and 507 B.C.E.\r\n<h2 id=\"kouroi-and-korai\">Kouroi and Korai<\/h2>\r\nVisually, the period is known for large-scale marble kouros (male youth) and kore (female youth) sculptures (see below). Showing the influence\u00a0of\u00a0ancient\u00a0Egyptian sculpture\u00a0(like\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/mfas3.s3.amazonaws.com\/objects\/SC116543.jpg\">this example<\/a>\u00a0of the Pharaoh Menkaure and his wife in the MFA, Boston), the kouros stands rigidly with both arms extended at the side and one leg advanced. Frequently employed as grave markers, these sculptural types displayed unabashed nudity, highlighting their complicated hairstyles and abstracted musculature (below left).\u00a0The kore, on the other hand, was never nude. Not only was her form draped in layers of fabric, but she was also ornamented with jewelry and adorned with a crown. Though some have been discovered in funerary contexts, like\u00a0<em>Phrasiklea<\/em> (below right), a vast majority were found on the Acropolis in Athens. Ritualistically buried following desecration of this sanctuary by the Persians in 480 and 479 B.C.E., dozens of korai were unearthed alongside other dedicatory artifacts. While the identities of these figures have been hotly debated in recent times, most agree that they were originally intended as votive offerings to the goddess Athena.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1641\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/korecouple.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1641\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image119.jpeg\" alt=\"Two marble sculptures side by side with a black background. On the left is a life-size nude male sculpture with one leg coming forward while on the right is a clothed female sculpture with one arm at her side and the other in front of her chest. \" width=\"870\" height=\"446\" \/><\/a> Left:\u00a0<em>Anavysos (Kroisos) Kouros<\/em>, c. 530 B.C.E., marble, 6\u2032 4\u2033 (National Archaeological Museum, Athens), photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/m7rHAo\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>;\u00a0Right: Aristion of Paros,\u00a0<em>Phrasikleia Kore<\/em>, c. 550\u2013540 B.C.E. Parian marble with traces of pigment, 211 cm high (National Archaeological Museum, Athens), photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4Tkhr8\">Asaf Braverman<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"archaic-ideals\">Archaic ideals<\/h3>\r\nFrom 600 to 480 B.C.E., ancient Greek cemeteries and\u00a0sanctuaries\u00a0were filled with marble statues of beautiful young men and women. The images of nude young men are today called kouroi (singular: kouros), the ancient Greek word for boy, though we do not know if they were called kouroi in antiquity. Their female counterparts, korai (singular: kore), wear richly painted robes and accessories made of expensive metals. Kouroi and korai are highly idealized images. Rather than showing people as they actually looked, they are representations of youthful perfection as envisioned by the Greek aristocrats who commissioned them in the\u00a0Archaic\u00a0period. These elite individuals conflated bodily beauty with moral excellence, so from their viewpoint, the idealized statues of young men and women that they commissioned displayed both inner and outer greatness. Kouroi and korai broadcasted the wealth and ideals of their patrons, revealing much about Archaic society.\r\n<h2 id=\"anavysos-kouros\">Anavysos Kouros<\/h2>\r\n\u201cStay and mourn at the monument of dead Kroisos, who raging Ares slew as he fought in the front ranks.\u201d\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=v1_pCZBVWuY&amp;t=1s\r\n<h2 id=\"peplos-kore\">Peplos Kore<\/h2>\r\nWhat\u2019s in a name? Discover whether this ancient Greek offering is an idealized young woman or a goddess.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=RjpT4Apgda8\r\n<h2 id=\"greek-vase-painting-an-introduction\">Greek Vase-Painting, an introduction<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1642\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/14106121451_06898bfe09_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1642\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image120.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Greek terracotta vase displayed in a glass case within a museum gallery. Vase features red-figure artwork depicting human and mythological figures, surrounded by other similar pottery pieces on illuminated shelves in the background.\" width=\"870\" height=\"577\" \/><\/a> Niobid Painter,\u00a0<em>Niobid Krater<\/em>, Attic red-figure calyx-krater, c. 460\u2013450 B.C.E., 54 x 56 cm (Mus\u00e9e du Louvre, Paris; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/nuvysx\">Steven Zucker<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"useful-for-scholars\">Useful for scholars<\/h3>\r\nPottery is virtually indestructible. Though it may break into smaller pieces (called sherds), these would have to be manually ground into dust in order to be removed from the archaeological record. As such, there is an abundance of material for study, and this is exceptionally useful for modern scholars. In addition to being an excellent tool for dating, pottery enables researchers to locate ancient sites, reconstruct the nature of a site, and point to evidence of trade between groups of people. Moreover, individual pots and their painted decoration can be studied in detail to answer questions about religion, daily life, and society.\r\n<h3 id=\"shapes-and-themes\">Shapes and themes<\/h3>\r\nMade of terracotta (fired clay),\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek_intro\/\">ancient Greek<\/a>\u00a0pots and cups, or \u201cvases\u201d as they are normally called, were fashioned into a variety of shapes and sizes, and very often a vessel\u2019s form correlates with its intended function. For example, the\u00a0<em>krater<\/em>\u00a0was used to mix water and wine during a Greek\u00a0<em>symposion<\/em>. It allows an individual to pour liquids into its wide opening, stir the contents in its deep bowl, and easily access the mixture with a separate ladle or small jug. Or, the vase known as a\u00a0<em>hydria<\/em>\u00a0was used for collecting, carrying, and pouring water. It features a bulbous body, a pinched spout, and three handles (two at the sides for holding and one stretched along the back for tilting and pouring).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1643\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"300\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/parts-of-vase.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1643\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image121.jpeg\" alt=\"Diagram of an ancient Greek-style vase labeled with key structural components including lip, neck, handle, shoulder, body, and foot. The vase features black and red coloring with decorative patterns and animal figures on the shoulder area.\" width=\"300\" height=\"351\" \/><\/a> Parts of an ancient Greek vase[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn order to discuss the different zones of vessels, specialists have adopted terms that relate to the parts of the body. The opening of the pot is called the mouth; the stem is referred to as the neck; the slope from the neck to the body is called the shoulder; and the base is known as the foot).\r\n\r\nOn the exterior, Greek vases exhibit painted compositions that often reflect the style of a certain period. For example, the vessels created during the\u00a0Geometric Period\u00a0feature geometric patterns, as seen on the famous\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/dipylon-amphora\/\">Dipylon amphora<\/a>, while those decorated in the\u00a0Orientalizing Period\u00a0display animal processions and Near Eastern motifs, as is visible on this early\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/an00828841_001_l.jpg\">Corinthian amphora<\/a>.\r\n\r\nLater, during the Archaic and Classical Periods, vase-paintings primarily display human and mythological activities. These figural scenes can vary widely, from daily life events (e.g., fetching water at the fountain house) to heroic deeds and Homeric tales (e.g., Theseus and the bull, Odysseus and the Sirens), from the world of the gods (e.g., Zeus abducting Ganymede) to theatrical performances and athletic competitions (for example, the Oresteia, chariot racing). While it is important to stress that such painted scenes should not be thought of as photographs that document reality, they can still aid in reconstructing the lives and beliefs of the ancient Greeks.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1644\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/12797625343_3000a80d49_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1644\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image122.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a museum exhibit featuring the Dipylon Amphora displayed on a wooden pedestal, surrounded by glass cases containing smaller pottery pieces. A visitor stands nearby, looking at a phone, with informational placards and a map visible on walls in the background.\" width=\"870\" height=\"581\" \/><\/a> Dipylon Amphora, c. 750 B.C.E., ceramic, 160 cm (National Archaeological Museum, Athens; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/kuTb9P\">Steven Zucker<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"techniques-painters-and-inscriptions\">Techniques, painters and inscriptions<\/h3>\r\nTo produce the characteristic red and black colors found on vases, Greek craftsmen used liquid clay as paint (termed \u201cslip\u201d) and perfected a complicated three-stage firing process. Not only did the pots have to be stacked in the kiln in a specific manner, but the conditions inside had to be precise. First, the temperature was stoked to about 800\u00b0 centigrade and vents allowed for an oxidizing environment. At this point, the entire vase turned red in color. Next, by sealing the vents and increasing temperature to around 900\u2013950\u00b0 centigrade, everything turned black and the areas painted with the slip vitrified (transformed into a glassy substance). Finally, in the last stage, the vents were reopened and oxidizing conditions returned inside the kiln. At this point, the unpainted zones of the vessel became red again while the vitrified slip (the painted areas) retained a glossy black hue. Through the introduction and removal of oxygen in the kiln and, simultaneously, the increase and decrease in temperature, the slip transformed into a glossy black color.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1645\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/12797595503_4d9b1e01cb_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1645\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image123.jpeg\" alt=\"Frieze with mourning figures (detail), Dipylon Amphora featuring a horizontal band of stylized human figures with triangular torsos and elongated limbs, arranged in a repetitive pattern. The design includes geometric shapes, dotted lines, and circular motifs in dark pigment on a light brown clay surface.\" width=\"870\" height=\"468\" \/><\/a> Frieze with mourning\u00a0figures (detail),\u00a0Dipylon Amphora, c. 750 B.C.E., ceramic, 160 cm (National Archaeological Museum, Athens; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/kuT2hk\">Steven Zucker<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nBriefly, ancient Greek vases display several painting techniques, and these are often period specific. During the\u00a0Geometric and Orientalizing periods, painters employed compasses to trace perfect circles and used silhouette and outline methods to delineate shapes and figures.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1646\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/8037991858_caf5d9df6f_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1646\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image124.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Greek black-figure pottery vase depicting two armored warriors crouching and playing a board game, representing a scene from the Trojan War. The vase features intricate detailing with black figures against a reddish-brown background, bordered by a decorative floral pattern near the top.\" width=\"870\" height=\"630\" \/><\/a> Exekias (potter and painter),\u00a0Attic black-figure amphora\u00a0(detail showing Ajax and Achilles playing a game), c. 540\u2013530 B.C.E., 61.1 cm high, found Vulci (Gregorian Etruscan Museum, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/dfhNWw\">Steven Zucker<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAround 625\u2013600 B.C.E., Athens adopted the black-figure technique (i.e., dark-colored figures on a light background with incised detail). Originating in Corinth almost a century earlier, black-figure uses the silhouette manner in conjunction with added color and incision. Incision involves the removal of slip with a sharp instrument, and perhaps its most masterful application can be found on an\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/exekias-attic-black-figure-amphora-with-ajax-and-achilles-playing-a-game\/\">amphora by Exekias<\/a>. Often described as Achilles and Ajax playing a game, the seated warriors lean towards the center of the scene and are clothed in garments that feature intricate incised patterning. In addition to displaying more realistically defined figures, black-figure painters took care to differentiate gender with color: women were painted with added white, men remained black.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1648\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"941\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1648\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image125.png\" alt=\"Ancient Greek red-figure pottery painting depicting a seated male figure holding a rod and a small hare, hanging from his left hand. The circular composition features detailed musculature and drapery, with Greek letters around the border indicating possible identification or context.\" width=\"941\" height=\"900\" \/> Gorgos,\u00a0Attic Red-figure Kylix\u00a0(interior), c. 500 B.C.E. (Agora Museum, Athens, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">Wikimedia<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe red-figure technique was invented in Athens around 525\u2013520 B.C.E. and is the inverse of black-figure. Here light-colored figures are set against a dark background. Using added color and a brush to paint in details, red-figure painters watered down or thickened the slip in order to create different effects.\r\n\r\nWatered down slip or \u201cdilute glaze\u201d has the appearance of a wash and was used for hair, fur, and anatomy, as exemplified by the sketchy coat of the hare and the youth\u2019s musculature on the interior of this cup by Gorgos. When thickened, the slip was used to form so-called \u201crelief lines\u201d or lines raised prominently from the surface, and these were often employed to outline forms. Surprisingly similar to red-figure is the white-ground technique.\r\n\r\nThough visually quite different with its polychrome figures on a white-washed background, white-ground requires the craftsman to paint in the details of forms just like red-figure, rather than incise them.\r\n\r\nAlongside figures and objects, one can sometimes find inscriptions. These identify mythological figures, beautiful men or women contemporaneous with the painter (\u201ckalos\u201d \/ \u201ckale\u201d inscriptions), and even the painter or potter himself (\u201cegrapsen\u201d \/ \u201cepoiesen\u201d). Inscriptions, however, are not always helpful. Mimicking the appearance of meaningful text, \u201cnonsense inscriptions\u201d deceive the illiterate viewer by arranging the Greek letters in an incoherent fashion.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1649\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/hb_1979.11.15.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1649\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image126.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Greek terracotta kylix (drinking cup) featuring a painted figure of a woman in profile holding a spear and extending her hand toward a small Ionic column fragment. The cup has two horizontal handles and a cream-colored interior with black and reddish-brown painted details.\" width=\"870\" height=\"683\" \/><\/a> Attributed to the Villa Giulia Painter,\u00a0Attic white ground kylix\u00a0(drinking cup), c. 470 B.C.E., terra-cotta, red figure, white ground, 6.2 x 16.2 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/255658\">The Metropolitan Museum of Art<\/a>, New York)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"vases-and-reception\">Vases and reception<\/h3>\r\nThe overall attractive quality of Greek vases, their relatively small size, and\u2014at one point in time\u2014their easily obtainable nature, led them to be highly coveted collector\u2019s items during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Since the later part of the 19th century, however, the study of vases became a scholarly pursuit and their decoration was the obsession of connoisseurs gifted with the ability to recognize and attribute the hands of individual painters.\r\n\r\nThe most well-known vase connoisseur of the 20th century, a researcher concerned with attribution, typology, and chronology, was Sir John Davidson Beazley. Interested in Athenian black-, red-figure, and white-ground techniques, Beazley did not favor beautifully painted specimens; he was impartial and studied pieces of varying quality with equal attention. From his tedious and exhaustive examinations, he compiled well-over 1000 painters and groups, and he attributed over 30,000 vases. Although some researchers since Beazley\u2019s death continue to attribute and examine the style of specific painters or groups, vase scholars today also question the technical production of vessels, their archaeological contexts, their local and foreign distribution, and their iconography.\r\n<h2 id=\"exekias-attic-black-figure-amphora-with-ajax-and-achilles-playing-a-game\">Exekias, Attic black figure amphora with Ajax and Achilles playing a game<\/h2>\r\nAchilles and Ajax, heroes of the Trojan War, break from battle to play a friendly game that hints at a tragic future.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=k2fdtepbkz8\r\n<h2 id=\"euthymides-three-revelers\">Euthymides,\u00a0Three Revelers<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1650\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/Euthymides_ARV_26_1_Hector_arming_-_komos_10-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1650\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image127.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Greek red-figure amphora depicting a mythological scene with three male figures. The vase features intricate floral patterns around the neck and handles, highlighting classical Greek pottery artistry.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1305\" \/><\/a> Euthymides,\u00a0<em>Three Revelers\u00a0<\/em>(Athenian red-figure amphora), c. 510 B.C.E., 61 cm high (Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Euthymides_ARV_26_1_Hector_arming_-_komos_(10).jpg\">ArchaiOptix<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"competition\">Competition<\/h3>\r\n\u201cAs never Ephronios [could do]\u201d wrote painter Euthymides after painting his new\u00a0amphora. Euthymides had a clear sense of achievement and was indeed proud of his work, boastfully challenging his friend and rival\u2014<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/euphronios-krater\/\">Euphronios<\/a>. He would see Euphronios often, as well as other painters in the Kerameikos\u2014the potter\u2019s quarter in Athens. They would be curious to see one another\u2019s new work, sometimes with appreciation, sometimes with a bit of jealousy. In the evenings they often had a good time together at a\u00a0symposium. They would drink wine mixed with water, become garrulous, loud and\u2014if drinking went on for too long\u2014they might even start singing and even dancing. Perhaps what is depicted on this amphora is a scene similar to those Euthymides witnessed at one of these long parties. Euphronios indeed was a master potter and painter, and Euthymides knew that and had a full appreciation for his work. He thought however, that his figures seemed much more lively, caught in a split of a moment, in a dancing movement.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-beginnings-of-red-figure-painting\">The beginnings of red-figure painting<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1651\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/Euthymides_-_ARV_26_1_-_Hector_arming_-_komos_-_Munchen_AS_2307_-_15a-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1651\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image128.jpeg\" alt=\"Detail, Euthymides, Three Revelers Greek vase painting depicting a bearded man with curly hair wearing a floral crown, holding a staff. The artwork features black and orange colors with detailed facial expressions and intricate line work highlighting the figure's muscles and hair.\" width=\"870\" height=\"580\" \/><\/a> Detail, Euthymides,\u00a0<em>Three Revelers\u00a0<\/em>(Athenian red-figure amphora), c. 510 B.C.E., 61 cm high (Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Euthymides_-_ARV_26_1_-_Hector_arming_-_komos_-_M%C3%BCnchen_AS_2307_-_15a.jpg\">ArchaiOptix<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nEuthymides worked mainly between 515 and 500 B.C.E., in a time when artists were exploring the possibilities of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek-vase-painting-an-introduction2\/#:~:text=The%20red%2Dfigure%20technique\">red-figure technique<\/a>, invented in Athens around 530 B.C.E. Both Euthymides and Euphronios belonged to a kind of camaraderie of artists, often dubbed the \u201cPioneer Group\u201d by art historians\u2014referring to their innovative efforts in the new technique. In the red-figure technique, an artist sketches figures on the red clay of a freshly fashioned vessel, then covers all the background with a\u00a0slip, which turns black after final firing. Details, like elements of anatomy, folds of drapery, etc., can be freely added with a thin brush; the slip can be darker, sometimes more diluted, brownish, adding even more variety. In the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-greek-vase-production-and-the-black-figure-technique-2\/\">black-figure technique<\/a>\u00a0which was used previously, an artist had to fill the figures with slip, and then incise the details with a sharp\u00a0burin\u00a0which was much more difficult to handle. At the time of the \u201cPioneers,\u201d there is a general trend in Greek art to observe the reality and represent human body more realistically, leaving the more\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/kouroi-korai\/\">stiff archaic models<\/a>\u00a0behind.\r\n<h3 id=\"hector-departs-for-war\">Hector departs for war<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1652\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/Hektor_arming_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2307-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1652\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image129.jpeg\" alt=\"Hector receiving the helmet from Hecube (detail), Euthymides, Three Revelers depicting three figures engaged in a scene. The artwork features detailed red-figure style with ornamental patterns along the top, highlighting a central figure holding a shield and a helmet being presented by a robed woman.\" width=\"870\" height=\"633\" \/><\/a> Hector receiving the helmet from Hecube (detail), Euthymides,<em>\u00a0Three Revelers\u00a0<\/em>(Athenian red-figure amphora), c. 510 B.C.E., 61 cm high (Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Hektor_arming_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2307.jpg\">ArchaiOptix<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nComing back again to the \u201cThree Revelers\u201d vase\u2014on one side of his amphora the artist decided to decorate with a mythological scene\u2014a solemn moment of Hector departing for the\u00a0Trojan War,\u00a0receiving the helmet from his mother Hecube.\r\n\r\nOn the other side of the vase, which is probably better known, the artist gave way to his keen sense of observation, giving us a glimpse into everyday life. Three rather tipsy men dance around, enjoying their moment during a long symposium. The one on the left still keeps in his hand a\u00a0<em>kantharos<\/em>\u2014a wine cup with long handles. Euthymides made an effort to show them neither completely frontally, nor completely in profile, but rather in three quarters view, using\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/foreshortening-explained\/\">foreshortening<\/a>\u00a0to convey a vivid, realistic image. The poses are very diversified, the man in the center is represented in a twisted view. The artist brought his keen sense of observation to describing human anatomy and movement. Greek vase painters often give us clear insight into everyday life\u2014allowing us to understand daily habits, details of clothing and customs. Of course, these painted vases cannot be treated as documents, since we would not expect men to be naked at a symposium. However, appreciation for the human body and nudity was a usual part of ancient Greek culture, and it provided a way for the artist to showcase his ability.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1653\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1429\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Euthymides_ARV_26_1_Hector_arming_-_komos_12.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1653\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image130.jpeg\" alt=\"Drinking and dancing with kantharos (detail), Euthymides, Three Revelers red-figure pottery vase depicting two bearded men, one playing a lyre and the other holding a staff. The scene features detailed line work, floral headbands, and traditional Greek attire, highlighting cultural and artistic elements.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"840\" \/><\/a> Drinking and dancing with kantharos (detail), Euthymides,\u00a0<em>Three Revelers<\/em>\u00a0(Athenian red-figure amphora), c. 510 B.C.E., 61 cm high (Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Euthymides_ARV_26_1_Hector_arming_-_komos_(12).jpg\">ArchaiOptix<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe vase displays balance and harmony of proportions, with its elegant and graceful shape, and carefully planned pictorial decoration. The main scenes on both sides of the amphora are complemented by a delicate ornament. Despite the beauty of the vase, the potters and painters in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-greece-an-introduction\/\">ancient Greece<\/a>\u00a0did not have the status an artist has in our modern society. Their work was looked upon as a physical labor, not as an activity inspired by the muses. In fact, there was no muse of painting. The decorated vases were produced in large amounts to answer the growing demand of the markets, both in Greece, as well as abroad (especially in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-etruscans-an-introduction\/\">Etruria<\/a>, and in Greek colonies). The Euthymides vase was in fact found in an\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/francois-tomb\/\">Etruscan tomb<\/a>\u00a0at Vulci in Italy. Many Greek vases survived untouched because the Etruscans buried their deceased in large underground tombs with many everyday objects.\r\n\r\nMost of the vases were simply everyday items, although a big, beautifully painted amphora like the one discussed here was also a luxury item, testifying to its owner\u2019s good taste and social standing. Despite their status as craftsmen, the artists around the time of Euthymides had a sense of personal value and achievement, hence the inscription \u201cAs never Euphronious [could do]\u201d. Because of the inscription \u201cEuthymides egraphsen\u201d (\u201cEuthymides painted me\u201d) we are sure that he was the painter\u2014and today we definitely think of him as an artist.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1654\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"426\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/EuthymidesTopView-1-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1654\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image131.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph Euthymides, Three Revelers red-figure amphora depicting three male figures in dynamic poses. The vase features intricate floral patterns around the neck and handles, with detailed orange and black coloration highlighting muscles and garments.\" width=\"426\" height=\"687\" \/><\/a> Euthymides,<em>\u00a0Three Revelers<\/em>\u00a0(Athenian red-figure amphora), c. 510 B.C.E., 61 cm high (Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Euthymides_ARV_26_1_Hector_arming_-_komos_(11).jpg\">ArchaiOptix<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-5\">Conclusion<\/h2>\r\nAround 500 B.C.E., there was a shift in thinking about how to represent the human body in Ancient Greek art. It is evident in both the red-figure style vase painting and in sculpture. Artists began to move toward capturing a greater sense of naturalism. Kouroi and korai began to decline in popularity towards the end of the sixth century B.C.E. They were so emblematic of Archaic elite ideals that they likely seemed conservative to viewers after a new, more democratic government came to power in Athens and began shifting focus towards civic (rather than individual) greatness. When the\u00a0Persian Empire\u00a0invaded Athens and burned much of the Acropolis to the ground in 480 B.C.E., the Archaic period ended and kouroi and korai fell out of fashion entirely. After the Persian attack, Athenians carefully buried the damaged korai that once stood on the Acropolis in the sacred ground, disposing of them in a respectful manner. They and their male counterparts were replaced by increasingly realistic images of men and women in dynamic postures. The rigidity of the Archaic period was abandoned, and naturalism became a key artistic trait of the Classical period that followed.\r\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-5\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\r\nThe following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and are licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Renee M. Gondek, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek_intro\/\">Introduction to ancient Greek art<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 14, 2016.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/dipylon-amphora\/\"><em>Dipylon Amphora<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 14, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Monica Bulger, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/kouroi-korai\/\">Kouroi and Korai, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, May 11, 2021.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Monica Bulger, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/anavysos-kouros\/\">Anavysos Kouros<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 11, 2023.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Monica Bulger, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/peplos-kore\/\"><em>Peplos Kore<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, February 1, 2024.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Renee M. Gondek, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek-vase-intro\/\">Greek Vase-Painting, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, September 9, 2016.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/exekias-attic-black-figure-amphora-with-ajax-and-achilles-playing-a-game\/\">Exekias, Attic black figure amphora with Ajax and Achilles playing a game<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 9, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Katarzyna Minollari, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/euthymides-three-revelers\/\">Euthymides,\u00a0<em>Three Revelers<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-5\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\n<p>Art historians divide Ancient Greek history into periods that correspond to stylistic qualities. There are four general periods of Ancient Greek history: Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic. After the fall of the Myceneans, Ancient Greece entered its dark ages. During the early Geometric period, the production of pottery signaled a re-emergence of culture and a revitalization of artistry. In the following Archaic period, Ancient Greek art focused on two forms: pottery and sculpture. Multiple techniques were used to shape and paint vases in Ancient Greece. Sculptural forms focused on the Kouros and Kore, providing a glimpse of the Greek attitude toward the human body.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-5\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Dipylon Amphora<\/em>, c. 755\u2013750 B.C.E., ceramic, 160 cm, Geometric period<\/li>\n<li>Anavysos Kouros, c. 530 B.C.E., marble, Archaic period<\/li>\n<li><em>Peplos Kore<\/em>, from the Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 530 B.C.E., marble, Archaic period<\/li>\n<li>Exekias,\u00a0<em>Achilles and Ajax playing a dice game<\/em>, Attic black-figure amphora, found in Vulci, Italy, c. 540-530 B.C.E., Archaic period<\/li>\n<li>Euthymides,\u00a0<em>Three Revelers<\/em>, Athenian red-figure amphora, c. 510 B.C.E., Archaic period<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"term-list-5\">Term List<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Polis\/Poleis<\/li>\n<li>Panhellenic<\/li>\n<li>Dark Ages<\/li>\n<li>Geometric period<\/li>\n<li>Orientalizing period<\/li>\n<li>Amphora<\/li>\n<li>Archaic period<\/li>\n<li>Kouros<\/li>\n<li>Kore<\/li>\n<li>Archaic smile<\/li>\n<li>Terracotta<\/li>\n<li>Krater<\/li>\n<li><em>Symposion<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Slip<\/li>\n<li>Black-figure painting<\/li>\n<li>Red-figure painting<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"introduction-to-ancient-greek-art-with-the-geometric-period\">Introduction to Ancient Greek art with the Geometric Period<\/h2>\n<h3 id=\"a-shared-language-religion-and-culture\">A shared language, religion, and culture<\/h3>\n<p>Ancient Greece can feel strangely familiar. From the exploits of\u00a0Achilles\u00a0and\u00a0Odysseus<em>,<\/em>\u00a0to the treatises of\u00a0Aristotle, from the exacting measurements of the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-parthenon-athens\/\">Parthenon<\/a>\u00a0(image above) to the rhythmic chaos of the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/athanadoros-hagesandros-and-polydoros-of-rhodes-laocoon-and-his-sons\/\"><em>Laoco\u00f6n<\/em><\/a>\u00a0(image below), ancient Greek culture has shaped our world. Thanks largely to notable archaeological sites, well-known literary sources, and the impact of Hollywood (<em>Clash of the Titans<\/em>, for example), this civilization is embedded in our collective consciousness\u2014prompting visions of epic battles, erudite philosophers, gleaming white temples, and limbless nudes (we now know the sculptures\u2014even the ones that decorated temples like the Parthenon\u2014were brightly painted, and, of course, the fact that the figures are often missing limbs is the result of the ravages of time).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1637\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1637\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/08\/Laocoo%CC%88n-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1637\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of the Laoco\u00f6n and His Sons marble sculpture depicting three muscular male figures struggling with large serpents. The sculpture highlights intricate details of human anatomy, dynamic poses, and expressive faces, set against a plain background with a pedestal base.\" width=\"870\" height=\"521\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-300x180.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-768x460.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-65x39.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-225x135.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image115-350x210.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1637\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Athanadoros, Hagesandros, and Polydoros of Rhodes,<em> Laoco\u00f6n and his Sons,<\/em> early first century C.E., marble, 7\u201910 1\/2\u2033 high (Vatican Museums; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2jdLrzT\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Dispersed around the Mediterranean and divided into self-governing units called\u00a0<em>poleis<\/em>\u00a0or\u00a0city-states, the ancient Greeks were united by a shared language, religion, and culture. Strengthening these bonds further were the so-called\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/sanctuary-of-apollo-at-delphi\/\">\u201cPanhellenic\u201d sanctuaries<\/a>\u00a0and festivals that embraced \u201call Greeks\u201d and encouraged interaction, competition, and exchange (for example the Olympics, which were held at the Panhellenic sanctuary at Olympia). Although popular modern understanding of the ancient Greek world is based on the classical art of fifth century B.C.E. Athens, it is important to recognize that Greek civilization was vast and did not develop overnight.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-dark-ages-c.-1100c.-800-b.c.e.-to-the-orientalizing-period-c.-700600-b.c.e.\">The Dark Ages (c. 1100\u2013c. 800 B.C.E.) \u00a0to the Orientalizing Period (c. 700\u2013600 B.C.E.)<\/h3>\n<p>Following the collapse of the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-palace-and-grave-circle-a-mycenae\/\">Mycenaean citadels<\/a>\u00a0of the late Bronze Age, the Greek mainland was traditionally thought to enter a \u201cDark Age\u201d that lasted from c. 1100 until c. 800 B.C.E. Not only did the complex socio-cultural system of the Mycenaeans disappear, but also its numerous achievements (i.e., metalworking, large-scale construction, writing). The discovery and continuous excavation of a site known as\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/lefkandi.classics.ox.ac.uk\/\">Lefkandi<\/a>, however, drastically alters this impression. Located just north of Athens, Lefkandi has yielded an immense\u00a0apsidal\u00a0structure (almost fifty meters long), a massive network of graves, and two heroic burials replete with gold objects and valuable horse sacrifices. One of the most interesting artifacts, ritually buried in two separate graves, is a centaur figurine (see photos below). At fourteen inches high, the terracotta creature is composed of a equine (horse) torso made on a potter\u2019s wheel and hand-formed human limbs and features. Alluding to mythology and perhaps a particular story, this centaur embodies the cultural richness of this period.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1638\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1638\" style=\"width: 1430px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/centaurwithhead.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1638\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image116.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of two ancient terracotta sculptures displayed against a white background. One sculpture depicts a four-legged animal with a human-like head and geometric patterns on its body, while the other shows a rounded human head with prominent ears and a blurred facial area.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"651\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image116.jpeg 1430w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image116-300x137.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image116-1024x466.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image116-768x350.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image116-65x30.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image116-225x102.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image116-350x159.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1430px) 100vw, 1430px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1638\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Centaur, c. 900 B.C.E. (Proto-Geometric period), terracotta, 14 inches high, the head was found in tomb 1 and the body was found in tomb 3 in the cemetery of Toumba, Lefkandi, Greece (detail of head photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/9nNTDP\">Dan Diffendale<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Similar in its adoption of narrative elements is a vase-painting likely from Thebes dating to c. 730 B.C.E. (see image below). Fully ensconced in the Geometric Period (c. 800\u2013700 B.C.E.), the imagery on the vase reflects other eighth-century artifacts, such as the\u00a0<em><a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/dipylon-amphora\/\">Dipylon Amphora<\/a>,<\/em>\u00a0with its geometric patterning and silhouetted human forms. Though simplistic, the overall scene on this vase seems to record a story. A man and woman stand beside a ship outfitted with tiers of rowers. Grasping at the stern and lifting one leg into the hull, the man turns back towards the female and takes her by the wrist. Is the couple\u00a0Theseus and Ariadne?\u00a0Is this an abduction? Perhaps Paris and Helen? Or, is the man bidding farewell to the woman and embarking on a journey as had\u00a0Odysseus and Penelope? The answer is unattainable.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1639\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1639\" style=\"width: 1431px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/kratercouple.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1639\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image117.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Greek terracotta vessel featuring black-figure decoration depicting human figures and geometric patterns. The vessel has a rounded body with a handle, showcasing detailed silhouettes of standing and seated figures, along with ornamental motifs arranged in horizontal bands.\" width=\"1431\" height=\"680\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image117.jpeg 1431w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image117-300x143.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image117-1024x487.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image117-768x365.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image117-65x31.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image117-225x107.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image117-350x166.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1431px) 100vw, 1431px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1639\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Late Geometric Attic spouted krater (vessel for mixing water and wine), possibly from Thebes, c. 730 B.C.E., 30.5 cm high (The British Museum, London, photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/dtZEwo\">Egisto Sani<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In the Orientalizing Period (700\u2013600 B.C.E.), alongside\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/metvasedetail.jpg\">Near Eastern motifs and animal processions<\/a>, craftsmen produced more nuanced figural forms and intelligible illustrations. For example, terracotta painted plaques from the Temple of Apollo at Thermon (c. 625 B.C.E.) are some of the earliest evidence for architectural decoration in Iron Age Greece.\u00a0Once ornamenting the surface of this Doric temple (most likely as metopes), the extant panels have preserved various imagery (watch\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek-architectural-orders\/\">this video<\/a>\u00a0to learn about the Doric order). On one plaque (see image below), a male youth strides towards the right and carries a significant attribute under his right arm\u2014the severed head of the\u00a0Gorgon\u00a0Medusa (her face is visible between the right hand and right hip of the striding figure). Not only is the painter successful here in relaying a particular story, but also the figure of Perseus shows great advancement from the previous century. The limbs are fleshy, the facial features are recognizable, and the hat and winged boots appropriately equip the hero for fast travel.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1640\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1640\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/04\/Painted_terracotta_metopes_from_Thermos_temple_of_Apollon_-_Athens_NAM_AD_2_-_01-copy.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1640\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image118.jpeg\" alt=\"Fresco fragment depicting a partially preserved figure with geometric and floral patterns, showcasing ancient artistic techniques. Colors include faded reds, blacks, and browns, with visible cracks and missing sections highlighting age and deterioration.\" width=\"870\" height=\"677\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image118.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image118-300x233.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image118-768x598.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image118-65x51.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image118-225x175.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image118-350x272.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1640\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Fragment showing Perseus with the head of Medusa likely from a metope from the Temple of Apollo at Thermon, c. 630 B.C.E., painted terracotta, 87.8 cm high (National Archaeological Museum, Athens; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Painted_terracotta_metopes_from_Thermos_(temple_of_Apollon)_-_Athens_NAM_AD_2_-_01.jpg\">ArchaiOptix<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 id=\"geometric-period-dipylon-amphora\">Geometric Period: <em>Dipylon Amphora<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>As tall as a person, this pot is covered with geometric patterns and early figural representations. The <em>Dipylon Amphora<\/em> dates from the Geometric Period of Ancient Greece.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Geometric: Dipylon Amphora\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/Uwpdiq9mYME?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"introduction-to-the-archaic-period-c.-600480479-b.c.e.\">Introduction to the Archaic Period (c. 600\u2013480\/479 B.C.E.)<\/h2>\n<p>While Greek artisans continued to develop their individual crafts, storytelling ability, and more realistic portrayals of human figures throughout the Archaic Period, the city of Athens witnessed the rise and fall of tyrants and the introduction of democracy by the statesman Kleisthenes in the years 508 and 507 B.C.E.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"kouroi-and-korai\">Kouroi and Korai<\/h2>\n<p>Visually, the period is known for large-scale marble kouros (male youth) and kore (female youth) sculptures (see below). Showing the influence\u00a0of\u00a0ancient\u00a0Egyptian sculpture\u00a0(like\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/mfas3.s3.amazonaws.com\/objects\/SC116543.jpg\">this example<\/a>\u00a0of the Pharaoh Menkaure and his wife in the MFA, Boston), the kouros stands rigidly with both arms extended at the side and one leg advanced. Frequently employed as grave markers, these sculptural types displayed unabashed nudity, highlighting their complicated hairstyles and abstracted musculature (below left).\u00a0The kore, on the other hand, was never nude. Not only was her form draped in layers of fabric, but she was also ornamented with jewelry and adorned with a crown. Though some have been discovered in funerary contexts, like\u00a0<em>Phrasiklea<\/em> (below right), a vast majority were found on the Acropolis in Athens. Ritualistically buried following desecration of this sanctuary by the Persians in 480 and 479 B.C.E., dozens of korai were unearthed alongside other dedicatory artifacts. While the identities of these figures have been hotly debated in recent times, most agree that they were originally intended as votive offerings to the goddess Athena.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1641\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1641\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/08\/korecouple.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1641\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image119.jpeg\" alt=\"Two marble sculptures side by side with a black background. On the left is a life-size nude male sculpture with one leg coming forward while on the right is a clothed female sculpture with one arm at her side and the other in front of her chest.\" width=\"870\" height=\"446\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image119.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image119-300x154.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image119-768x394.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image119-65x33.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image119-225x115.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image119-350x179.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1641\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Left:\u00a0<em>Anavysos (Kroisos) Kouros<\/em>, c. 530 B.C.E., marble, 6\u2032 4\u2033 (National Archaeological Museum, Athens), photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/m7rHAo\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>;\u00a0Right: Aristion of Paros,\u00a0<em>Phrasikleia Kore<\/em>, c. 550\u2013540 B.C.E. Parian marble with traces of pigment, 211 cm high (National Archaeological Museum, Athens), photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4Tkhr8\">Asaf Braverman<\/a>\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"archaic-ideals\">Archaic ideals<\/h3>\n<p>From 600 to 480 B.C.E., ancient Greek cemeteries and\u00a0sanctuaries\u00a0were filled with marble statues of beautiful young men and women. The images of nude young men are today called kouroi (singular: kouros), the ancient Greek word for boy, though we do not know if they were called kouroi in antiquity. Their female counterparts, korai (singular: kore), wear richly painted robes and accessories made of expensive metals. Kouroi and korai are highly idealized images. Rather than showing people as they actually looked, they are representations of youthful perfection as envisioned by the Greek aristocrats who commissioned them in the\u00a0Archaic\u00a0period. These elite individuals conflated bodily beauty with moral excellence, so from their viewpoint, the idealized statues of young men and women that they commissioned displayed both inner and outer greatness. Kouroi and korai broadcasted the wealth and ideals of their patrons, revealing much about Archaic society.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"anavysos-kouros\">Anavysos Kouros<\/h2>\n<p>\u201cStay and mourn at the monument of dead Kroisos, who raging Ares slew as he fought in the front ranks.\u201d<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Anavysos Kouros\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/v1_pCZBVWuY?start=1&#38;feature=oembed\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"peplos-kore\">Peplos Kore<\/h2>\n<p>What\u2019s in a name? Discover whether this ancient Greek offering is an idealized young woman or a goddess.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"Peplos Kore from the Acropolis\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/RjpT4Apgda8?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"greek-vase-painting-an-introduction\">Greek Vase-Painting, an introduction<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1642\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1642\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/14106121451_06898bfe09_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1642\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image120.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Greek terracotta vase displayed in a glass case within a museum gallery. Vase features red-figure artwork depicting human and mythological figures, surrounded by other similar pottery pieces on illuminated shelves in the background.\" width=\"870\" height=\"577\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image120.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image120-300x199.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image120-768x509.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image120-65x43.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image120-225x149.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image120-350x232.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1642\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Niobid Painter,\u00a0<em>Niobid Krater<\/em>, Attic red-figure calyx-krater, c. 460\u2013450 B.C.E., 54 x 56 cm (Mus\u00e9e du Louvre, Paris; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/nuvysx\">Steven Zucker<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"useful-for-scholars\">Useful for scholars<\/h3>\n<p>Pottery is virtually indestructible. Though it may break into smaller pieces (called sherds), these would have to be manually ground into dust in order to be removed from the archaeological record. As such, there is an abundance of material for study, and this is exceptionally useful for modern scholars. In addition to being an excellent tool for dating, pottery enables researchers to locate ancient sites, reconstruct the nature of a site, and point to evidence of trade between groups of people. Moreover, individual pots and their painted decoration can be studied in detail to answer questions about religion, daily life, and society.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"shapes-and-themes\">Shapes and themes<\/h3>\n<p>Made of terracotta (fired clay),\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek_intro\/\">ancient Greek<\/a>\u00a0pots and cups, or \u201cvases\u201d as they are normally called, were fashioned into a variety of shapes and sizes, and very often a vessel\u2019s form correlates with its intended function. For example, the\u00a0<em>krater<\/em>\u00a0was used to mix water and wine during a Greek\u00a0<em>symposion<\/em>. It allows an individual to pour liquids into its wide opening, stir the contents in its deep bowl, and easily access the mixture with a separate ladle or small jug. Or, the vase known as a\u00a0<em>hydria<\/em>\u00a0was used for collecting, carrying, and pouring water. It features a bulbous body, a pinched spout, and three handles (two at the sides for holding and one stretched along the back for tilting and pouring).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1643\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1643\" style=\"width: 300px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/parts-of-vase.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1643\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image121.jpeg\" alt=\"Diagram of an ancient Greek-style vase labeled with key structural components including lip, neck, handle, shoulder, body, and foot. The vase features black and red coloring with decorative patterns and animal figures on the shoulder area.\" width=\"300\" height=\"351\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image121.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image121-256x300.jpeg 256w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image121-65x76.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image121-225x263.jpeg 225w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1643\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Parts of an ancient Greek vase<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In order to discuss the different zones of vessels, specialists have adopted terms that relate to the parts of the body. The opening of the pot is called the mouth; the stem is referred to as the neck; the slope from the neck to the body is called the shoulder; and the base is known as the foot).<\/p>\n<p>On the exterior, Greek vases exhibit painted compositions that often reflect the style of a certain period. For example, the vessels created during the\u00a0Geometric Period\u00a0feature geometric patterns, as seen on the famous\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/dipylon-amphora\/\">Dipylon amphora<\/a>, while those decorated in the\u00a0Orientalizing Period\u00a0display animal processions and Near Eastern motifs, as is visible on this early\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/an00828841_001_l.jpg\">Corinthian amphora<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>Later, during the Archaic and Classical Periods, vase-paintings primarily display human and mythological activities. These figural scenes can vary widely, from daily life events (e.g., fetching water at the fountain house) to heroic deeds and Homeric tales (e.g., Theseus and the bull, Odysseus and the Sirens), from the world of the gods (e.g., Zeus abducting Ganymede) to theatrical performances and athletic competitions (for example, the Oresteia, chariot racing). While it is important to stress that such painted scenes should not be thought of as photographs that document reality, they can still aid in reconstructing the lives and beliefs of the ancient Greeks.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1644\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1644\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/12797625343_3000a80d49_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1644\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image122.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a museum exhibit featuring the Dipylon Amphora displayed on a wooden pedestal, surrounded by glass cases containing smaller pottery pieces. A visitor stands nearby, looking at a phone, with informational placards and a map visible on walls in the background.\" width=\"870\" height=\"581\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image122.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image122-300x200.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image122-768x513.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image122-65x43.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image122-225x150.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image122-350x234.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1644\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Dipylon Amphora, c. 750 B.C.E., ceramic, 160 cm (National Archaeological Museum, Athens; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/kuTb9P\">Steven Zucker<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"techniques-painters-and-inscriptions\">Techniques, painters and inscriptions<\/h3>\n<p>To produce the characteristic red and black colors found on vases, Greek craftsmen used liquid clay as paint (termed \u201cslip\u201d) and perfected a complicated three-stage firing process. Not only did the pots have to be stacked in the kiln in a specific manner, but the conditions inside had to be precise. First, the temperature was stoked to about 800\u00b0 centigrade and vents allowed for an oxidizing environment. At this point, the entire vase turned red in color. Next, by sealing the vents and increasing temperature to around 900\u2013950\u00b0 centigrade, everything turned black and the areas painted with the slip vitrified (transformed into a glassy substance). Finally, in the last stage, the vents were reopened and oxidizing conditions returned inside the kiln. At this point, the unpainted zones of the vessel became red again while the vitrified slip (the painted areas) retained a glossy black hue. Through the introduction and removal of oxygen in the kiln and, simultaneously, the increase and decrease in temperature, the slip transformed into a glossy black color.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1645\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1645\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2016\/09\/12797595503_4d9b1e01cb_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1645\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image123.jpeg\" alt=\"Frieze with mourning figures (detail), Dipylon Amphora featuring a horizontal band of stylized human figures with triangular torsos and elongated limbs, arranged in a repetitive pattern. The design includes geometric shapes, dotted lines, and circular motifs in dark pigment on a light brown clay surface.\" width=\"870\" height=\"468\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image123.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image123-300x161.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image123-768x413.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image123-65x35.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image123-225x121.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image123-350x188.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1645\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Frieze with mourning\u00a0figures (detail),\u00a0Dipylon Amphora, c. 750 B.C.E., ceramic, 160 cm (National Archaeological Museum, Athens; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/kuT2hk\">Steven Zucker<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Briefly, ancient Greek vases display several painting techniques, and these are often period specific. During the\u00a0Geometric and Orientalizing periods, painters employed compasses to trace perfect circles and used silhouette and outline methods to delineate shapes and figures.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1646\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1646\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/8037991858_caf5d9df6f_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1646\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image124.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Greek black-figure pottery vase depicting two armored warriors crouching and playing a board game, representing a scene from the Trojan War. The vase features intricate detailing with black figures against a reddish-brown background, bordered by a decorative floral pattern near the top.\" width=\"870\" height=\"630\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image124.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image124-300x217.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image124-768x556.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image124-65x47.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image124-225x163.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image124-350x253.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1646\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Exekias (potter and painter),\u00a0Attic black-figure amphora\u00a0(detail showing Ajax and Achilles playing a game), c. 540\u2013530 B.C.E., 61.1 cm high, found Vulci (Gregorian Etruscan Museum, Vatican City; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/dfhNWw\">Steven Zucker<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Around 625\u2013600 B.C.E., Athens adopted the black-figure technique (i.e., dark-colored figures on a light background with incised detail). Originating in Corinth almost a century earlier, black-figure uses the silhouette manner in conjunction with added color and incision. Incision involves the removal of slip with a sharp instrument, and perhaps its most masterful application can be found on an\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/exekias-attic-black-figure-amphora-with-ajax-and-achilles-playing-a-game\/\">amphora by Exekias<\/a>. Often described as Achilles and Ajax playing a game, the seated warriors lean towards the center of the scene and are clothed in garments that feature intricate incised patterning. In addition to displaying more realistically defined figures, black-figure painters took care to differentiate gender with color: women were painted with added white, men remained black.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1648\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1648\" style=\"width: 941px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1648\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image125.png\" alt=\"Ancient Greek red-figure pottery painting depicting a seated male figure holding a rod and a small hare, hanging from his left hand. The circular composition features detailed musculature and drapery, with Greek letters around the border indicating possible identification or context.\" width=\"941\" height=\"900\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image125.png 941w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image125-300x287.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image125-768x735.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image125-65x62.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image125-225x215.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image125-350x335.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 941px) 100vw, 941px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1648\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Gorgos,\u00a0Attic Red-figure Kylix\u00a0(interior), c. 500 B.C.E. (Agora Museum, Athens, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">Wikimedia<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The red-figure technique was invented in Athens around 525\u2013520 B.C.E. and is the inverse of black-figure. Here light-colored figures are set against a dark background. Using added color and a brush to paint in details, red-figure painters watered down or thickened the slip in order to create different effects.<\/p>\n<p>Watered down slip or \u201cdilute glaze\u201d has the appearance of a wash and was used for hair, fur, and anatomy, as exemplified by the sketchy coat of the hare and the youth\u2019s musculature on the interior of this cup by Gorgos. When thickened, the slip was used to form so-called \u201crelief lines\u201d or lines raised prominently from the surface, and these were often employed to outline forms. Surprisingly similar to red-figure is the white-ground technique.<\/p>\n<p>Though visually quite different with its polychrome figures on a white-washed background, white-ground requires the craftsman to paint in the details of forms just like red-figure, rather than incise them.<\/p>\n<p>Alongside figures and objects, one can sometimes find inscriptions. These identify mythological figures, beautiful men or women contemporaneous with the painter (\u201ckalos\u201d \/ \u201ckale\u201d inscriptions), and even the painter or potter himself (\u201cegrapsen\u201d \/ \u201cepoiesen\u201d). Inscriptions, however, are not always helpful. Mimicking the appearance of meaningful text, \u201cnonsense inscriptions\u201d deceive the illiterate viewer by arranging the Greek letters in an incoherent fashion.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1649\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1649\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/hb_1979.11.15.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1649\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image126.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Greek terracotta kylix (drinking cup) featuring a painted figure of a woman in profile holding a spear and extending her hand toward a small Ionic column fragment. The cup has two horizontal handles and a cream-colored interior with black and reddish-brown painted details.\" width=\"870\" height=\"683\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image126.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image126-300x236.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image126-768x603.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image126-65x51.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image126-225x177.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image126-350x275.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1649\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Attributed to the Villa Giulia Painter,\u00a0Attic white ground kylix\u00a0(drinking cup), c. 470 B.C.E., terra-cotta, red figure, white ground, 6.2 x 16.2 cm (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.metmuseum.org\/art\/collection\/search\/255658\">The Metropolitan Museum of Art<\/a>, New York)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"vases-and-reception\">Vases and reception<\/h3>\n<p>The overall attractive quality of Greek vases, their relatively small size, and\u2014at one point in time\u2014their easily obtainable nature, led them to be highly coveted collector\u2019s items during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Since the later part of the 19th century, however, the study of vases became a scholarly pursuit and their decoration was the obsession of connoisseurs gifted with the ability to recognize and attribute the hands of individual painters.<\/p>\n<p>The most well-known vase connoisseur of the 20th century, a researcher concerned with attribution, typology, and chronology, was Sir John Davidson Beazley. Interested in Athenian black-, red-figure, and white-ground techniques, Beazley did not favor beautifully painted specimens; he was impartial and studied pieces of varying quality with equal attention. From his tedious and exhaustive examinations, he compiled well-over 1000 painters and groups, and he attributed over 30,000 vases. Although some researchers since Beazley\u2019s death continue to attribute and examine the style of specific painters or groups, vase scholars today also question the technical production of vessels, their archaeological contexts, their local and foreign distribution, and their iconography.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"exekias-attic-black-figure-amphora-with-ajax-and-achilles-playing-a-game\">Exekias, Attic black figure amphora with Ajax and Achilles playing a game<\/h2>\n<p>Achilles and Ajax, heroes of the Trojan War, break from battle to play a friendly game that hints at a tragic future.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-4\" title=\"Attic Black-Figure: Exekias, amphora with Ajax and Achilles playing a game\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/k2fdtepbkz8?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"euthymides-three-revelers\">Euthymides,\u00a0Three Revelers<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1650\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1650\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/Euthymides_ARV_26_1_Hector_arming_-_komos_10-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1650\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image127.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Greek red-figure amphora depicting a mythological scene with three male figures. The vase features intricate floral patterns around the neck and handles, highlighting classical Greek pottery artistry.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1305\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image127.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image127-200x300.jpeg 200w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image127-683x1024.jpeg 683w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image127-768x1152.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image127-65x98.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image127-225x338.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image127-350x525.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1650\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Euthymides,\u00a0<em>Three Revelers\u00a0<\/em>(Athenian red-figure amphora), c. 510 B.C.E., 61 cm high (Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Euthymides_ARV_26_1_Hector_arming_-_komos_(10).jpg\">ArchaiOptix<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"competition\">Competition<\/h3>\n<p>\u201cAs never Ephronios [could do]\u201d wrote painter Euthymides after painting his new\u00a0amphora. Euthymides had a clear sense of achievement and was indeed proud of his work, boastfully challenging his friend and rival\u2014<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/euphronios-krater\/\">Euphronios<\/a>. He would see Euphronios often, as well as other painters in the Kerameikos\u2014the potter\u2019s quarter in Athens. They would be curious to see one another\u2019s new work, sometimes with appreciation, sometimes with a bit of jealousy. In the evenings they often had a good time together at a\u00a0symposium. They would drink wine mixed with water, become garrulous, loud and\u2014if drinking went on for too long\u2014they might even start singing and even dancing. Perhaps what is depicted on this amphora is a scene similar to those Euthymides witnessed at one of these long parties. Euphronios indeed was a master potter and painter, and Euthymides knew that and had a full appreciation for his work. He thought however, that his figures seemed much more lively, caught in a split of a moment, in a dancing movement.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-beginnings-of-red-figure-painting\">The beginnings of red-figure painting<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1651\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1651\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/Euthymides_-_ARV_26_1_-_Hector_arming_-_komos_-_Munchen_AS_2307_-_15a-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1651\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image128.jpeg\" alt=\"Detail, Euthymides, Three Revelers Greek vase painting depicting a bearded man with curly hair wearing a floral crown, holding a staff. The artwork features black and orange colors with detailed facial expressions and intricate line work highlighting the figure's muscles and hair.\" width=\"870\" height=\"580\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image128.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image128-300x200.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image128-768x512.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image128-65x43.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image128-225x150.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image128-350x233.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1651\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Detail, Euthymides,\u00a0<em>Three Revelers\u00a0<\/em>(Athenian red-figure amphora), c. 510 B.C.E., 61 cm high (Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Euthymides_-_ARV_26_1_-_Hector_arming_-_komos_-_M%C3%BCnchen_AS_2307_-_15a.jpg\">ArchaiOptix<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Euthymides worked mainly between 515 and 500 B.C.E., in a time when artists were exploring the possibilities of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek-vase-painting-an-introduction2\/#:~:text=The%20red%2Dfigure%20technique\">red-figure technique<\/a>, invented in Athens around 530 B.C.E. Both Euthymides and Euphronios belonged to a kind of camaraderie of artists, often dubbed the \u201cPioneer Group\u201d by art historians\u2014referring to their innovative efforts in the new technique. In the red-figure technique, an artist sketches figures on the red clay of a freshly fashioned vessel, then covers all the background with a\u00a0slip, which turns black after final firing. Details, like elements of anatomy, folds of drapery, etc., can be freely added with a thin brush; the slip can be darker, sometimes more diluted, brownish, adding even more variety. In the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-greek-vase-production-and-the-black-figure-technique-2\/\">black-figure technique<\/a>\u00a0which was used previously, an artist had to fill the figures with slip, and then incise the details with a sharp\u00a0burin\u00a0which was much more difficult to handle. At the time of the \u201cPioneers,\u201d there is a general trend in Greek art to observe the reality and represent human body more realistically, leaving the more\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/kouroi-korai\/\">stiff archaic models<\/a>\u00a0behind.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"hector-departs-for-war\">Hector departs for war<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1652\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1652\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/06\/Hektor_arming_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2307-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1652\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image129.jpeg\" alt=\"Hector receiving the helmet from Hecube (detail), Euthymides, Three Revelers depicting three figures engaged in a scene. The artwork features detailed red-figure style with ornamental patterns along the top, highlighting a central figure holding a shield and a helmet being presented by a robed woman.\" width=\"870\" height=\"633\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image129.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image129-300x218.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image129-768x559.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image129-65x47.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image129-225x164.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image129-350x255.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1652\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hector receiving the helmet from Hecube (detail), Euthymides,<em>\u00a0Three Revelers\u00a0<\/em>(Athenian red-figure amphora), c. 510 B.C.E., 61 cm high (Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Hektor_arming_Staatliche_Antikensammlungen_2307.jpg\">ArchaiOptix<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Coming back again to the \u201cThree Revelers\u201d vase\u2014on one side of his amphora the artist decided to decorate with a mythological scene\u2014a solemn moment of Hector departing for the\u00a0Trojan War,\u00a0receiving the helmet from his mother Hecube.<\/p>\n<p>On the other side of the vase, which is probably better known, the artist gave way to his keen sense of observation, giving us a glimpse into everyday life. Three rather tipsy men dance around, enjoying their moment during a long symposium. The one on the left still keeps in his hand a\u00a0<em>kantharos<\/em>\u2014a wine cup with long handles. Euthymides made an effort to show them neither completely frontally, nor completely in profile, but rather in three quarters view, using\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/foreshortening-explained\/\">foreshortening<\/a>\u00a0to convey a vivid, realistic image. The poses are very diversified, the man in the center is represented in a twisted view. The artist brought his keen sense of observation to describing human anatomy and movement. Greek vase painters often give us clear insight into everyday life\u2014allowing us to understand daily habits, details of clothing and customs. Of course, these painted vases cannot be treated as documents, since we would not expect men to be naked at a symposium. However, appreciation for the human body and nudity was a usual part of ancient Greek culture, and it provided a way for the artist to showcase his ability.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1653\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1653\" style=\"width: 1429px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Euthymides_ARV_26_1_Hector_arming_-_komos_12.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1653\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image130.jpeg\" alt=\"Drinking and dancing with kantharos (detail), Euthymides, Three Revelers red-figure pottery vase depicting two bearded men, one playing a lyre and the other holding a staff. The scene features detailed line work, floral headbands, and traditional Greek attire, highlighting cultural and artistic elements.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"840\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image130.jpeg 1429w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image130-300x176.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image130-1024x602.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image130-768x451.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image130-65x38.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image130-225x132.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image130-350x206.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1429px) 100vw, 1429px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1653\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Drinking and dancing with kantharos (detail), Euthymides,\u00a0<em>Three Revelers<\/em>\u00a0(Athenian red-figure amphora), c. 510 B.C.E., 61 cm high (Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Euthymides_ARV_26_1_Hector_arming_-_komos_(12).jpg\">ArchaiOptix<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The vase displays balance and harmony of proportions, with its elegant and graceful shape, and carefully planned pictorial decoration. The main scenes on both sides of the amphora are complemented by a delicate ornament. Despite the beauty of the vase, the potters and painters in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-greece-an-introduction\/\">ancient Greece<\/a>\u00a0did not have the status an artist has in our modern society. Their work was looked upon as a physical labor, not as an activity inspired by the muses. In fact, there was no muse of painting. The decorated vases were produced in large amounts to answer the growing demand of the markets, both in Greece, as well as abroad (especially in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-etruscans-an-introduction\/\">Etruria<\/a>, and in Greek colonies). The Euthymides vase was in fact found in an\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/francois-tomb\/\">Etruscan tomb<\/a>\u00a0at Vulci in Italy. Many Greek vases survived untouched because the Etruscans buried their deceased in large underground tombs with many everyday objects.<\/p>\n<p>Most of the vases were simply everyday items, although a big, beautifully painted amphora like the one discussed here was also a luxury item, testifying to its owner\u2019s good taste and social standing. Despite their status as craftsmen, the artists around the time of Euthymides had a sense of personal value and achievement, hence the inscription \u201cAs never Euphronious [could do]\u201d. Because of the inscription \u201cEuthymides egraphsen\u201d (\u201cEuthymides painted me\u201d) we are sure that he was the painter\u2014and today we definitely think of him as an artist.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1654\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1654\" style=\"width: 426px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/03\/EuthymidesTopView-1-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1654\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image131.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph Euthymides, Three Revelers red-figure amphora depicting three male figures in dynamic poses. The vase features intricate floral patterns around the neck and handles, with detailed orange and black coloration highlighting muscles and garments.\" width=\"426\" height=\"687\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image131.jpeg 426w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image131-186x300.jpeg 186w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image131-65x105.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image131-225x363.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image131-350x564.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 426px) 100vw, 426px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1654\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Euthymides,<em>\u00a0Three Revelers<\/em>\u00a0(Athenian red-figure amphora), c. 510 B.C.E., 61 cm high (Staatliche Antikensammlungen, Munich; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Euthymides_ARV_26_1_Hector_arming_-_komos_(11).jpg\">ArchaiOptix<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-5\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n<p>Around 500 B.C.E., there was a shift in thinking about how to represent the human body in Ancient Greek art. It is evident in both the red-figure style vase painting and in sculpture. Artists began to move toward capturing a greater sense of naturalism. Kouroi and korai began to decline in popularity towards the end of the sixth century B.C.E. They were so emblematic of Archaic elite ideals that they likely seemed conservative to viewers after a new, more democratic government came to power in Athens and began shifting focus towards civic (rather than individual) greatness. When the\u00a0Persian Empire\u00a0invaded Athens and burned much of the Acropolis to the ground in 480 B.C.E., the Archaic period ended and kouroi and korai fell out of fashion entirely. After the Persian attack, Athenians carefully buried the damaged korai that once stood on the Acropolis in the sacred ground, disposing of them in a respectful manner. They and their male counterparts were replaced by increasingly realistic images of men and women in dynamic postures. The rigidity of the Archaic period was abandoned, and naturalism became a key artistic trait of the Classical period that followed.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-5\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\n<p>The following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and are licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\n<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Dr. Renee M. Gondek, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek_intro\/\">Introduction to ancient Greek art<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 14, 2016.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/dipylon-amphora\/\"><em>Dipylon Amphora<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 14, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Monica Bulger, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/kouroi-korai\/\">Kouroi and Korai, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, May 11, 2021.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Monica Bulger, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/anavysos-kouros\/\">Anavysos Kouros<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 11, 2023.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Monica Bulger, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/peplos-kore\/\"><em>Peplos Kore<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, February 1, 2024.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Renee M. Gondek, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/greek-vase-intro\/\">Greek Vase-Painting, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, September 9, 2016.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/exekias-attic-black-figure-amphora-with-ajax-and-achilles-playing-a-game\/\">Exekias, Attic black figure amphora with Ajax and Achilles playing a game<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 9, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Katarzyna Minollari, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/euthymides-three-revelers\/\">Euthymides,\u00a0<em>Three Revelers<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"menu_order":8,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1655","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1655","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"version-history":[{"count":4,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1655\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1984,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1655\/revisions\/1984"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1655\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1655"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1655"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1655"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1655"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}