{"id":1609,"date":"2026-07-16T17:28:50","date_gmt":"2026-07-16T17:28:50","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/chapter\/ancient-egypt-in-the-new-kingdom\/"},"modified":"2026-07-27T17:17:51","modified_gmt":"2026-07-27T17:17:51","slug":"ancient-egypt-in-the-new-kingdom","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/chapter\/ancient-egypt-in-the-new-kingdom\/","title":{"raw":"Ancient Egypt in the New Kingdom","rendered":"Ancient Egypt in the New Kingdom"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-3\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\r\nThe New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt was a prosperous time featuring massive building projects. One such project was the <em>Temple of Amun-Re<\/em>\u00a0at Karnak, which demonstrates components of Ancient Egyptian traditional religion and corresponding artistic forms. At one point during the New Kingdom, Egypt was ruled by the female pharaoh Hatshepsut,<em>\u00a0<\/em>who fully utilized traditional royal aesthetics during her reign. It was also during the New Kingdom that Egypt experienced the controversial Amarna period. Begun by the Pharaoh Akhenaten, the Amarna period dramatically changed ancient Egyptian religion and style. The Amarna era ended during the rule of Egypt\u2019s most well-known pharaoh: Tutankhamun. Although the chapter concludes with the Amarna period, it is not the last phase of Ancient Egyptian history. After the Amarna period, Egypt returned to traditional style and religion and massive building projects by pharaohs continued.\u00a0The last phase of Ancient Egypt falls under the Ptolemaic period and the defeat of the Ptolemaic dynasty by the Romans.\r\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-3\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>Hypostyle Hall<\/em>, from <em>Temple of Amon-Re<\/em>, c. 1250 B.C.E. (hall), 18th and 19th Dynasties, New Kingdom, sandstone and mud brick, Karnak, at Luxor, Egypt<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Large Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut<\/em>, c. 1479\u20131458 B.C.E., New Kingdom, Egypt, granite<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>House Altar depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Three of their Daughters<\/em>, c. 1350 B.C.E., New Kingdom, Amarna period, 18th dynasty, limestone<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Death Mask<\/em> from innermost coffin, Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty, c. 1323 B.C.E., gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 id=\"term-list-3\">Term List<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>New Kingdom<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Amun-Re<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Valley of the Kings<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Amarna Period<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Aten<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Karnak<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Hypostyle hall<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Clerestory windows<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Zep tepi<\/em><\/li>\r\n \t<li>Divine cult statues<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sunken relief<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ankhs<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sarcophagus<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Crook and flail<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Nekhbet<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Wadjet<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Amarna style<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Akhenaten<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2 id=\"new-kingdom-and-third-intermediate-period-an-introduction\">New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period, an introduction<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1594\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Egypt_NK_edit-BH1500.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1594\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image76.jpeg\" alt=\"Map showing Egyptian Empire around 1500 B.C.E., highlighting territorial extent along Nile River including key locations Memphis, Amarna, Thebes, and Valley of the Kings. Surrounding regions labeled include Libya, Nubia, Kush, Hittite Empire, Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia, with seas such as Mediterranean, Red, Black, and Caspian marked.\" width=\"870\" height=\"899\" \/><\/a> Egyptian Empire, c. 1500 B.C.E.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nBorn in battle, the New Kingdom was initiated by the Theban king Ahmose who brought the Egyptian armies north against the\u00a0Hyksos kings at Avaris\u00a0and drove them out of the\u00a0Nile delta.\r\n\r\nThe early Eighteenth Dynasty (the first dynasty of the New Kingdom) was characterized by military campaigns that continually pushed the borders of Egypt into Asia Minor and Nubia. Later kings of this dynasty relied more heavily on diplomatic relationships, achieving a position of power and cultural dynamism in the Mediterranean world due to their successes in foreign policy.\r\n\r\nAfter the Eighteenth Dynasty experienced a unique and disruptive era of significant religious and political alteration (known as the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/house-altar-depicting-akhenaten-nefertiti-and-three-of-their-daughters\/\">Amarna Period<\/a>), the early Nineteenth Dynasty kings reasserted traditional social and cultural beliefs. These rulers emphasized their strategic and physical prowess on the battlefield. Scenes of successful battles, showing the king at the head of his armies triumphing over the chaotic enemy, appear prominently on temple walls as proof of the ruler\u2019s abilities. Later in the New Kingdom, repeated incursions from outside forces (such as the Libyans and the migratory Sea Peoples), weakened the country, eventually leading to a fracturing of centralized control and the Third Intermediate Period.\r\n<h3 id=\"new-kingdom-c.-15501070-b.c.e.\">New Kingdom (c. 1550\u20131070 B.C.E.)<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1595\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1428\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1595\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image77.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of sphinxes, the first pylon, and the central east-west aisle of Temple of Amon-Ra, Karnak in Luxor featuring large sandstone walls and rows of sphinx statues lining a wide stone pathway. The scene highlights architectural grandeur and historical significance with clear blue sky and sparse greenery framing the structure.\" width=\"1428\" height=\"876\" \/> View of sphinxes, the first pylon, and the central east-west aisle of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/temple-of-amun-re-and-the-hypostyle-hall-karnak\/\">Temple of Amon-Ra, Karnak in Luxor<\/a>, Egypt (photo: Mark Fox, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nSpanning more than 500 years and encompassing Dynasties 18\u201320,\u00a0the New Kingdom is often considered to be the peak of ancient Egyptian culture. The early Eighteenth Dynasty rulers were warrior kings who carried out numerous military campaigns to expand their borders and areas of control, both to the north and the south.\u00a0These incursions were primarily intended to create a buffer around the Egyptian homeland, exploit valuable resources, and gain control of trade routes.\r\n\r\nEager to reestablish a centralized authority after the chaos of the Second Intermediate Period, the royal court moved back to Memphis,\u00a0the ancient seat of power from the golden age of the great pyramids. Thebes, however, remained the religious capital.\u00a0The local god Amun was merged with the sun god Ra and became Amun-Ra\u2014King of the Gods. Amun\u2019s shrine at\u00a0Karnak\u00a0developed into the largest temple complex in the country.\r\n\r\nA new royal burial site, now known as the Valley of the Kings, was initiated in the hills on the west side of the Nile from Thebes;\u00a0the first royal tomb cut into the cliffs was for Thutmosis I.\u00a0Kings dug deep subterranean tombs into the limestone Valley and paired those hidden tombs with grand memorial temples, constructed closer to the Nile edge of cultivation, that served to maintain the king\u2019s cult after death.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1596\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"960\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1596\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image78.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Egyptian temple complex set against a backdrop of rugged desert cliffs under a partly cloudy blue sky. The temple features a long central ramp leading to a colonnaded structure with multiple rectangular columns, flanked by a sphinx statue in the foreground.\" width=\"960\" height=\"643\" \/> Temple of Queen Hatshepsut, Dayr al-Ba\u1e25r\u012b, Egypt, c. 1470 B.C.E. (Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Temple_of_Hatshepsut.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOne of the most stunning structures from the ancient world is one of these memorial temples, which stands against the dramatic cliffs at Deir el Bahri just opposite the Valley of the Kings. This terraced temple was built by Hatshepsut, the powerful female ruler who controlled Egypt for roughly 20 years at the height of the Eighteenth Dynasty. She built her memorial monument directly adjacent to the memorial temple of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II, founder of the Middle Kingdom, clearly identifying her righteous rule as a continuation of those who came before.\r\n\r\nAfter ongoing military campaigns under Thutmosis III led to Egypt\u2019s furthest borders, later kings sought more diplomatic solutions in their relations with other powers in the Near East. These included diplomatic marriages, such as that between Thutmosis IV and the daughter of Mitannian ruler Artatama, and greatly reduced expansionist tendencies. This led to an era of wealth and relative peace under Thutmosis IV\u2019s successor, Amenhotep III. This king focused on developing the religious landscape\u2014enlarging numerous existing chapels and founding several new temples, including the magnificent\u00a0Luxor Temple. He commissioned an incredible number of divine statues to emphasize his connections to the gods, and authorized some images that gave himself and his<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/portrait-head-of-queen-tiye-with-a-crown-of-two-feathers\/\">\u00a0chief wife, Tiye<\/a>, divine attributes.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1597\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/7670423810_da89de5145_o-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1597\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image79.jpeg\" alt=\"Bas-relief carving depicts two seated ancient Egyptian figures facing each other, with a child sitting on the lap of the figure on the right. Sun disk with rays ending in hands appears above, surrounded by hieroglyphic inscriptions.\" width=\"870\" height=\"540\" \/><\/a> House Altar depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Three of their Daughters, limestone, New Kingdom, Amarna period, 18th dynasty, c.1350 BCE (\u00c4gyptisches Museum\/Neues Museum, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/profzucker\/7670418962\/in\/photostream\/\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nTheir son was Amenhotep IV, who changed his name early in his reign to<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/house-altar-depicting-akhenaten-nefertiti-and-three-of-their-daughters\/\">\u00a0Akhenaten<\/a>. Akhenaten and his<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/thutmose-model-bust-of-queen-nefertiti\/\">\u00a0chief wife, Nefertiti<\/a>, were dedicated to the cult of the Aten, a specific form of the sun god that manifested as a disc. Akhenaten made the radical choice to move the capital to a brand new location at Akhet-Aten (modern Amarna) and centralized control, both secular and religious, in himself as the sole representative of the Aten on earth. In general, this significant break with tradition was not well-received and it did not last.\r\n\r\nAkhenaten\u2019s young successor and son\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/tutankhamuns-tomb-innermost-coffin-and-death-mask\/\">Tutankhamun<\/a>\u00a0(better known as King Tut), moved the religious capital back to Thebes, re-establishing Amun-Ra as the chief national deity. Akhenaten\u2019s reign was viewed as a time of chaos by later kings;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-egyptian-chronology-historical-framework\/\">\u00a0the king list at Seti I\u2019s temple in Abydos<\/a>\u00a0jumps from Amenhotep III directly to Horemhab, completely skipping over the contentious reigns of Akhenaten and his immediate successors, Tutankhamun and Ay.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1598\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"840\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/12\/Egypt_Abou_Simbel6.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1598\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image80.jpeg\" alt=\"Bas-relief carving depicting an ancient Egyptian warrior in a dynamic pose, holding a weapon and subduing two enemies beneath him. Surrounding hieroglyphic inscriptions provide historical context, with detailed figures and symbolic elements carved into stone. \" width=\"840\" height=\"648\" \/><\/a> Ramses II ruled for 67 years. Here he is shown slaying an enemy while he tramples on an other in the battle of Kadesh in 1274 B.C.E., inside Abu Simbel, Egypt (photo: Aoineko, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nEarly Nineteenth Dynasty kings resumed military campaigns and re-established Egyptian authority over parts of the Near East. One of the best-known kings from Egypt was Rameses II. He ruled for sixty-seven years, fought great battles with the Hittites, and constructed a huge number of monuments throughout the country. Triumphant battle scenes adorn many of these temples, many depicting the battle of Kadesh despite the fact that he didn\u2019t actually conquer the Hittites\u2014the conflict was instead settled by negotiation and diplomatic agreements.\r\n\r\nLater kings of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties faced successive waves of invasions by foreign powers, such as the Libyans and the enigmatic migratory group known as the Sea Peoples. These conflicts were an obvious strain and led to the reduction of the king\u2019s reach and sphere of influence. By the end of the Twentieth Dynasty, the pharaoh ruling from Memphis had little apparent control over a powerful family in Thebes whose members served as high priests at Karnak and who endowed themselves with royal titles.\r\n<h3 id=\"third-intermediate-period-c.-1070713-b.c.e.\">Third Intermediate Period (c. 1070\u2013713 B.C.E.)<\/h3>\r\nThis era was characterized by a distinct split between north and south. During the Twenty-first Dynasty, the kings ruled from the delta while the south was controlled by the high priests of Amun at Thebes. These ruling families were related and often intermarried, helping to maintain a sense of continuity.\r\n\r\nMany social and religious customs changed, including the royal mortuary practices.\u00a0The Twenty-first Dynasty kings at Tanis in the delta initiated a completely new form of royal burial where the burial chamber and chapel were contained within a temple precinct, in the courtyard of the god\u2019s temple, a design that remained in use for royal burials until the Ptolemaic period. Several of these tombs were discovered intact with silver coffins, incredible jewelry, and marvelous vessels. The elaborately decorated private tombs of the New Kingdom became less common. Focus was shifted to remarkable painted coffins, papyri, and wooden stelae that presented most of the required imagery for the ritual provisioning for the afterlife.\r\n\r\nHighly skilled metalworking during this time is evidenced in small-scale metal sculptures of divine, royal, and private individuals. These were often exquisitely finished with multiple metals inlaid into the surface in delicate patterns. One of the most beautiful examples is that of Karomama, a queen and\u00a0Divine Adoratrice\u00a0of Amun. This elegant statue (53 cm in height) was hollow-cast in bronze and intricately inlaid with gold, silver, and copper to create the elaborate patterns of her costume.\r\n\r\nDuring the Twenty-second Dynasty, a Libyan chieftain who had risen through the ranks became king in the north. He also placed several members of his family in top positions in the Amun priesthood at Karnak in an effort to exercise control over the south. However, later in the dynasty this practice led to a civil war between the regions. Subsequent rulers further complicated royal control when an offshoot of the Libyan royal family founded a rival dynasty that was favored by the Thebans. This period of political instability encouraged local governors to exercise their own authority, further exacerbating the situation.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1599\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"800\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1599\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image81.png\" alt=\"Map illustrating ancient Egypt and Kush regions along the Nile River, highlighting Upper Egypt, Lower Egypt, and surrounding deserts with labeled cities and landmarks. Key features include Mediterranean Sea to the north, Red Sea to the east, and notable locations such as Memphis, Thebes, and Napata, emphasizing geographic and political divisions.\" width=\"800\" height=\"1633\" \/> Map of Kush and Ancient Egypt, showing the Nile up to the fifth cataract, and major cities and sites of the ancient Egyptian Dynastic period (c. 3150\u201330 B.C.) (map: Jeff Dahl, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nAt this same time, to the south in Nubia, the kingdom of Kush was again on the rise.\u00a0They pushed their borders north to Thebes, establishing themselves as kings of Egypt and founding the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, bringing the disjointed Third Intermediate Period to a close.\r\n<h2 id=\"ancient-egyptian-religious-practices-temple-of-amun-re-and-the-hypostyle-hall-karnak\">Ancient Egyptian Religious Practices: Temple of Amun-Re and the Hypostyle Hall, Karnak<\/h2>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1600\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/AmunRaEastWest.jpeg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1600\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image82.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of sphinxes, the first pylon, and the central east-west aisle of Temple of Amon-Ra, Karnak in Luxor featuring large sandstone walls and rows of sphinx statues lining a wide stone pathway. The scene highlights architectural grandeur and historical significance with clear blue sky and sparse greenery framing the structure.\" width=\"870\" height=\"534\" \/><\/a> View of sphinxes, the first pylon, and the central east-west aisle of Temple of Amon-Re, Karnak in Luxor, Egypt (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/dUNcs2\">Mark Fox<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe massive temple complex of Karnak was the principal religious center of the god Amun-Re in Thebes during the\u00a0New Kingdom\u00a0(which lasted from 1550 until 1070 B.C.E.). The complex remains one of the largest religious complexes in the world. However, Karnak was not just one temple dedicated to one god\u2014it held not only the main precinct to the god\u00a0Amun-Re\u2014but also the precincts of the gods\u00a0Mut\u00a0and\u00a0Montu. Compared to other temple compounds that survive from ancient Egypt, Karnak is in a poor state of preservation but it still gives scholars a wealth of information about Egyptian religion and art.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-most-select-of-places\">\u201cThe Most Select of Places\u201d<\/h3>\r\nThe site was first developed during the Middle Kingdom (2055\u20131650 B.C.E.) and was initially modest in scale but as new importance was placed on the city of Thebes, subsequent pharaohs began to place their own mark on Karnak. The main precinct alone would eventually have as many as twenty temples and chapels. [footnote]R. Wilkinson,\u00a0<em>The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt<\/em>\u00a0(New York: Thames &amp; Hudson, 2000), p. 154.[\/footnote] Karnak was known in ancient times as \u201cThe Most Select of Places\u201d (<em>Ipet-isut<\/em>) and was not only the location of the cult image of Amun and a place for the god to dwell on earth but also a working estate for the priestly community who lived on site. Additional buildings included a sacred lake, kitchens, and workshops for the production of religious accoutrements.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1601\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/AmunReMap.jpeg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1601\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image83.jpeg\" alt=\"A labeled architectural model depicting Precinct of Amon-Re, Karnak complex with key structures such as Temple of Amun-Re, Hypostyle Hall, pylons, and Sacred Lake. Red text labels highlight important areas and directions, illustrating layout and spatial relationships within the complex.\" width=\"870\" height=\"515\" \/><\/a> Model of the Precinct of Amon-Re, Karnak (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Karnak_model.JPG\">R\u00e9mih<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe main temple of Amun-Re had two axes\u2014one that went north\/south and the other that extended east\/west. The southern axis continued towards the temple of Luxor and was connected by an avenue of ram-headed sphinxes.\r\n\r\nWhile the sanctuary was plundered for stone in ancient times, there are still a number of unique architectural features within this vast complex. For example, the tallest\u00a0obelisk\u00a0in Egypt stood at Karnak and was dedicated by the female pharaoh Hatshepsut who ruled Egypt during the New Kingdom. Made of one piece of red granite, it originally had a matching obelisk that was removed by the Roman emperor Constantine and re-erected in Rome. Another unusual feature was the Festival Temple of Thutmose III, which had columns that represented tent poles, a feature this pharaoh was no doubt familiar with from his many war campaigns.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1602\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/AmunReColumns.jpeg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1602\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image84.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of ancient Egyptian columns inside a Karnak at Luxor showcasing faded red, blue, and beige paint with hieroglyphic carvings on the ceiling and walls. Columns feature distinct bands of color and weathered patches.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1168\" \/><\/a> \u201cTent pole\u201d columns, Festival Temple of Thutmose III, c. 1479\u201325 B.C.E., sandstone, mud brick, paint, Karnak, at Luxor, Egypt (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4nWwrL\">Dennis Jarvis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"hypostyle-hall\">Hypostyle hall<\/h3>\r\nOne of the greatest architectural marvels of Karnak is the hypostyle hall (a space with a roof supported by columns) built during the\u00a0Ramesside period. The hall has 134 massive sandstone columns with the center twelve columns standing at 69 feet. Like most of the temple decoration, the hall would have been brightly painted and some of this paint still exists on the upper portions of the columns and ceiling today. With the center of the hall taller than the spaces on either side, the Egyptians allowed for\u00a0clerestory\u00a0lighting (a section of wall that allowed light and air into the otherwise dark space below). In fact, the earliest evidence for clerestory lighting comes from Egypt. Not many ancient Egyptians would have had access to this hall, since the further one went into the temple, the more restricted access became.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1603\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1256\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1603\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image85.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Hypostyle hall from Karnak with ancient stone columns arranged in rows within a large open structure, showcasing intricate carvings and hieroglyphs on the surfaces. Columns vary in size and detail, with light filtering through gaps, highlighting architectural grandeur and historical significance.\" width=\"1256\" height=\"1980\" \/> Hypostyle Hall, c. 1250 B.C.E. (hall), 18th and 19th Dynasties, New Kingdom, sandstone and mud brick, Karnak, at Luxor, Egypt (Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Karnak_Hypostyle_Hall_R05.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"temple-as-cosmos\">Temple as cosmos<\/h3>\r\nConceptually, temples in Egypt were connected to the idea of <em>zep tepi<\/em>, or \u201cthe first time,\u201d the beginnings of the creation of the world. The temple was a reflection of this time, when the mound of creation emerged from the primeval waters. The pylons, or gateways in the temple represent the horizon, and as one moves further into the temple, the floor rises until it reaches the sanctuary of the god, giving the impression of a rising mound, like that during creation. The temple roof represented the sky and was often decorated with stars and birds. The columns were designed with lotus, papyrus, and palm plants in order to reflect the marsh-like environment of creation. The outer areas of Karnak, which was located near the Nile River, would flood during the annual inundation\u2014an intentional effect by the ancient designers no doubt, in order to enhance the temple\u2019s symbolism. [footnote]Wilkinson (2000), p. 77.[\/footnote]\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1604\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/AmunRePlan.jpeg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1604\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image86.jpeg\" alt=\"Architectural floor plan of the Great Temple of Ammon at Karnak, detailing layout of various chambers, halls, and courtyards. Includes labeled sections such as the Hypostyle Hall, Sanctuary, and surrounding walls, with scale and directional markers for orientation. \" width=\"870\" height=\"475\" \/><\/a> Plan of the Temple of Amon-Re, Karnak[\/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"mortuary-temple-and-large-kneeling-statue-of-hatshepsut\">Mortuary Temple and Large Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut<\/h2>\r\nEgyptian kings were typically men, but Hatshepsut became pharaoh and used art to convey her divine and royal authority. Hatshepsut controlled Egypt for roughly 20 years at the height of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Built opposite the Valley of the Kings on the west side of the Nile from Thebes, the Mortuary temple to Hatshepsut served to assert her authority and connect her reign with Egyptian pharaohs of the past.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=pZOUV_rTyj0\r\n<h2 id=\"amarna-style-house-altar-depicting-akhenaten-nefertiti-and-three-of-their-daughters\">Amarna Style: House Altar depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Three of their Daughters<\/h2>\r\nUpon becoming pharaoh, Akhenaten revolutionized the religion and artistic style of Egypt\u2014at least until his death. The son of Amenhotep III and Tiye, Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaten. Akhenaten was dedicated to Aten, a form of the sun god who manifested as a disc. He relocated the capital from Thebes to Akhet Aten (Amarna) and took control as the singular representative of Aten. Akhenaten\u2019s reforms developed into an artistic style remarkably different from traditional Egyptian conventions.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=ryycDVWXDvc\r\n<h2 id=\"from-amarna-back-to-tradition-tutankhamuns-tomb-innermost-coffin-and-death-mask\">From Amarna back to tradition: Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb (innermost coffin and death mask)<\/h2>\r\nAkhenaten\u2019s young successor and son\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/tutankhamuns-tomb-innermost-coffin-and-death-mask\/\">Tutankhamun<\/a>\u00a0(better known as King Tut), moved the religious capital back to Thebes, re-establishing Amun-Ra as the chief national deity. Akhenaten\u2019s reign was viewed as a time of chaos by later kings. Later pharaohs intentionally removed the record of Akhenaten and his immediate successors, Tutankhamun and Ay.\r\n<h3 id=\"nearly-lost-to-history\">Nearly lost to history<\/h3>\r\nTutankhamun was only the age of nine when he became\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/egyptian-social-organization-pharaoh\/\">king of Egypt<\/a>\u00a0during the 18th dynasty of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/new-kingdom-third-intermediate-period-introduction\/\">New Kingdom<\/a>\u00a0(c. 1332\u20131323 B.C.E.). His story would have been lost to history if it were not for the discovery of his tomb in 1922 by the archaeologist Howard Carter in the Valley of the Kings. His nearly intact tomb held a wealth of objects that give us unique insights into this period of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-egypt\/\">ancient Egyptian history<\/a>.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1605\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1110\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Egypt_NK_edit-BH1500.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1605\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image87.jpeg\" alt=\"Map showing Egyptian Empire around 1500 B.C.E., highlighting territorial extent in light green along Nile River, including key cities Memphis, Amarna, Thebes, and Valley of the Kings. Surrounding regions such as Libya, Nubia, Kush, Hittite Empire, Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia are labeled, with major bodies of water like Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, and Persian Gulf marked in blue.\" width=\"1110\" height=\"1147\" \/><\/a> New Kingdom of the Egyptian Empire, c. 1500 B.C.E.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nTutankhamun ruled after the Amarna age, when the pharaoh\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/house-altar-depicting-akhenaten-nefertiti-and-three-of-their-daughters\/\">Akhenaten<\/a>, Tutankhamun\u2019s probable father, turned the religious attention of the kingdom to the worship of the god Aten, the sun disc. Akhenaten moved his capital city to the site of Akhetaten (also known as Amarna), in Middle Egypt\u2014far from the previous pharaoh\u2019s capital. After Akhenaten\u2019s death and the rule of a short-lived pharaoh, Smenkhkare, Tutankhamen shifted the focus of the country\u2019s worship back to the god\u00a0Amun\u00a0and returned the religious center back to Thebes.\r\n\r\nTutankhamun married his half-sister, Ankhesenamun, but they did not produce an heir. This left the line of succession unclear. Tutankhamun died at the young age of eighteen, leading many scholars to speculate on the manner of his death\u2014chariot accident, murder by blow to the head, and even a hippopotamus attack! The answer is still unclear. Tutankhamun\u2019s much-older advisor (and possible step-grandfather),\u00a0Ay, married the widowed Ankhesenamun and became pharaoh.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-tomb\">The tomb<\/h3>\r\nDuring the early twentieth century, Howard Carter, a British Egyptologist, excavated for many years in the Valley of the Kings\u2014a royal burial ground located on the west bank of the ancient city of Thebes. He was running out of money to support his archaeological digs when he asked for funding for one more season from his financial backer, the fifth Earl of Carnarvon. Lord Carnarvon granted him one more year\u2014and what a year it was!\r\n\r\nAt the beginning of November 1922, Carter came upon the first of twelve steps of the entrance that led to the tomb of Tutankhamun. He quickly recovered the steps and sent a telegram to Carnarvon in England so they could open the tomb together. Carnarvon departed for Egypt immediately and on November 26, 1922, they made a hole in the entrance of the antechamber in order to look in. Carter states:\r\n\r\n\u201cAt first I could see nothing, the hot air escaping from the chamber causing the candle flame to flicker, but presently, as my eyes grew accustomed to the lights, details of the room within emerged slowly from the mist, strange animals, statues, and gold\u2014everywhere the glint of gold.[footnote]Howard Carter and\u00a0A. C. Mace,\u00a0<em>The Tomb of Tut-ankh-amen<\/em>, volume 1 (New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1933), pp. 95\u201396.[\/footnote]\u201d\r\n\r\nThe task of cataloging the finds was an immense undertaking for the team. Carter spent a decade systematically recording the finds and having them photographed.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-innermost-coffin\">The innermost coffin<\/h3>\r\nTutankhamun\u2019s sarcophagus (a box-like stone container) held not one but three coffins in which to hold the body of the king. The outer two coffins were crafted in wood and covered in gold along with many semiprecious stones, such as lapis lazuli and turquoise.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1606\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/tut-coffin-long.jpeg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1606\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image88.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb, innermost coffin sarcophagus made of gold, featuring detailed engravings and colorful inlays on the chest and head area. The sarcophagus showcases traditional Egyptian artistic elements, including a headdress, crossed arms, and intricate wing designs symbolizing protection.\" width=\"870\" height=\"280\" \/><\/a> Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb, innermost coffin, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty, c. 1323 B.C.E., gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones (Egyptian Museum, Cairo, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/profzucker\/15618376030\/in\/photostream\/\">Smarthistory, Flickr<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe inner coffin, however, was made of solid gold. When Howard Carter first came upon this coffin, it was not the shiny golden image we see in the Egyptian Museum today. In his excavation notes, Carter states, it was\r\n\r\n\u201ccovered with a thick black pitch-like layer which extended from the hands down to the ankles (top image). This was obviously an anointing liquid which had been poured over the coffin during the burial ceremony and in great quantity (some two buckets full).[footnote]Nicholas Reeves,\u00a0<em>The Complete Tutankhamun<\/em>\u00a0(London: Thames and Hudson, 1990), pp. 108\u201309.[\/footnote]\u201d\r\n\r\nThe image of the pharaoh is that of a god.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/egyptian-deities\/\">The gods<\/a>\u00a0were thought to have skin of gold, bones of silver, and hair of lapis lazuli\u2014so the king is shown here in his divine form in the afterlife. He holds the crook and flail, symbols of the king\u2019s right to rule. The goddesses\u00a0Nekhbet (vulture)\u00a0and\u00a0Wadjet (cobra), inlaid with semiprecious stones, stretch their wings across his torso. Beneath these goddesses are two more\u2014Isis\u00a0and\u00a0Nephthys\u2014etched into the gold lid.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1607\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"366\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1607\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image89.png\" alt=\"Illustration of two ancient Egyptian symbols of authority: a blue and gold striped crook and flail crossed over each other. Crook features a curved top, while flail has three gold strands with red and blue decorations near the handle.\" width=\"366\" height=\"326\" \/> Egyptian crook and flail (by:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Crook_and_flail.svg\">Jeff Dahl<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"the-death-mask-of-tutankhamun\">The death mask of Tutankhamun<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1608\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/tut-death-mask.jpeg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1608\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image90.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Death Mask from innermost coffin, Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb, featuring gold and blue striped headdress with intricate inlays of colored stones along the collar. The mask displays a stylized beard and cobra emblem on the forehead, symbolizing royalty and divine protection.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1088\" \/><\/a> Death Mask from innermost coffin, Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty, c. 1323 B.C.E., gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones (Egyptian Museum, Cairo) (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg\">Roland Unger<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe death mask is considered one of the masterpieces of Egyptian art. It originally rested directly on the shoulders of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/mummification-and-funeral-rites\/\">mummy<\/a>\u00a0inside the innermost gold coffin. It is constructed of two sheets of gold that were hammered together and weighs 22.5 pounds (10.23 kg). Tutankhamen is depicted wearing the striped nemes headdress (the striped head-cloth typically worn by pharaohs in ancient Egypt) with the goddesses Nekhbet and Wadjet depicted again protecting his brow. He also wears a false beard that further connects him to the image of a god as with the inner coffin. He wears a broad collar, which ends in terminals shaped as falcon heads. The back of the mask is covered with Spell 151b from the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-egyptian-mortuary-texts\/\">Book of the Dead<\/a>, which the Egyptians used as a road map for the afterlife. This particular spell protects the various limbs of Tutankhamun as he moves into the underworld.\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nThe <em>Death Mask of Tutankhamun<\/em> is an iconic work of art. Egyptian artists seamlessly blended the formal elements with iconographic symbolism. As a <strong>figurative form<\/strong>, the viewer can clearly identify the <strong>idealized<\/strong> portrait of an Egyptian king. Almost perfectly symmetrical in <strong>composition<\/strong>, the artists crafted the smooth <strong>texture<\/strong> of golden <strong>color<\/strong> skin for Tutankhamun. Black <strong>contour lines<\/strong> define the eyes while Tutankhamun wears the <strong>patterned<\/strong> nemes headdress alternating with the <strong>colors<\/strong> of blue and gold. A similar alternating <strong>pattern of color<\/strong> occurs on the false beard. The <strong>rectilinear lines<\/strong> of the striped nemes lead the viewer\u2019s eye toward the face of the youthful, expressionless king.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-3\">Conclusion<\/h2>\r\nWith Tutankhamun\u2019s reign and death, Egypt returned to its long-standing traditional polytheistic religion and artistic style. Interestingly, Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb featured artifacts showing elements of the Amarna style begun by Akhenaten. This includes Tutankhamun\u2019s throne. However, other artworks found in Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb, from the death mask to the innermost coffin, utilized the traditional Egyptian style: youthful, front facing, symmetrical, and idealized. Tutankhamun is shown with royal symbols, including the crook and flail in the coffin and the false beard, uraeus, and nemes in the death mask. These stylistic features and symbols connected back to the traditional symbols of ancient Egyptian kingship used since the predynastic and Old Kingdom periods.\r\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-3\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\r\nThe following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and are licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Conclusion<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Amy Calvert, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/new-kingdom-third-intermediate-period-introduction\/\">New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, February 14, 2022.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Elizabeth Cummins, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/temple-of-amun-re-and-the-hypostyle-hall-karnak\/\">Temple of Amun-Re and the Hypostyle Hall, Karnak<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, November 27, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/hatshepsut\/\">Mortuary Temple and Large Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/house-altar-depicting-akhenaten-nefertiti-and-three-of-their-daughters\/\"><em>House Altar depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Three of their Daughters<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 6, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Elizabeth Cummins, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/tutankhamuns-tomb-innermost-coffin-and-death-mask\/\">Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb (innermost coffin and death mask)<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-3\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\n<p>The New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt was a prosperous time featuring massive building projects. One such project was the <em>Temple of Amun-Re<\/em>\u00a0at Karnak, which demonstrates components of Ancient Egyptian traditional religion and corresponding artistic forms. At one point during the New Kingdom, Egypt was ruled by the female pharaoh Hatshepsut,<em>\u00a0<\/em>who fully utilized traditional royal aesthetics during her reign. It was also during the New Kingdom that Egypt experienced the controversial Amarna period. Begun by the Pharaoh Akhenaten, the Amarna period dramatically changed ancient Egyptian religion and style. The Amarna era ended during the rule of Egypt\u2019s most well-known pharaoh: Tutankhamun. Although the chapter concludes with the Amarna period, it is not the last phase of Ancient Egyptian history. After the Amarna period, Egypt returned to traditional style and religion and massive building projects by pharaohs continued.\u00a0The last phase of Ancient Egypt falls under the Ptolemaic period and the defeat of the Ptolemaic dynasty by the Romans.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-3\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><em>Hypostyle Hall<\/em>, from <em>Temple of Amon-Re<\/em>, c. 1250 B.C.E. (hall), 18th and 19th Dynasties, New Kingdom, sandstone and mud brick, Karnak, at Luxor, Egypt<\/li>\n<li><em>Large Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut<\/em>, c. 1479\u20131458 B.C.E., New Kingdom, Egypt, granite<\/li>\n<li><em>House Altar depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Three of their Daughters<\/em>, c. 1350 B.C.E., New Kingdom, Amarna period, 18th dynasty, limestone<\/li>\n<li><em>Death Mask<\/em> from innermost coffin, Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty, c. 1323 B.C.E., gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"term-list-3\">Term List<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>New Kingdom<\/li>\n<li>Amun-Re<\/li>\n<li>Valley of the Kings<\/li>\n<li>Amarna Period<\/li>\n<li>Aten<\/li>\n<li>Karnak<\/li>\n<li>Hypostyle hall<\/li>\n<li>Clerestory windows<\/li>\n<li><em>Zep tepi<\/em><\/li>\n<li>Divine cult statues<\/li>\n<li>Sunken relief<\/li>\n<li>Ankhs<\/li>\n<li>Sarcophagus<\/li>\n<li>Crook and flail<\/li>\n<li>Nekhbet<\/li>\n<li>Wadjet<\/li>\n<li>Amarna style<\/li>\n<li>Akhenaten<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"new-kingdom-and-third-intermediate-period-an-introduction\">New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period, an introduction<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1594\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1594\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Egypt_NK_edit-BH1500.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1594\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image76.jpeg\" alt=\"Map showing Egyptian Empire around 1500 B.C.E., highlighting territorial extent along Nile River including key locations Memphis, Amarna, Thebes, and Valley of the Kings. Surrounding regions labeled include Libya, Nubia, Kush, Hittite Empire, Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia, with seas such as Mediterranean, Red, Black, and Caspian marked.\" width=\"870\" height=\"899\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image76.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image76-290x300.jpeg 290w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image76-768x794.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image76-65x67.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image76-225x233.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image76-350x362.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1594\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Egyptian Empire, c. 1500 B.C.E.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Born in battle, the New Kingdom was initiated by the Theban king Ahmose who brought the Egyptian armies north against the\u00a0Hyksos kings at Avaris\u00a0and drove them out of the\u00a0Nile delta.<\/p>\n<p>The early Eighteenth Dynasty (the first dynasty of the New Kingdom) was characterized by military campaigns that continually pushed the borders of Egypt into Asia Minor and Nubia. Later kings of this dynasty relied more heavily on diplomatic relationships, achieving a position of power and cultural dynamism in the Mediterranean world due to their successes in foreign policy.<\/p>\n<p>After the Eighteenth Dynasty experienced a unique and disruptive era of significant religious and political alteration (known as the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/house-altar-depicting-akhenaten-nefertiti-and-three-of-their-daughters\/\">Amarna Period<\/a>), the early Nineteenth Dynasty kings reasserted traditional social and cultural beliefs. These rulers emphasized their strategic and physical prowess on the battlefield. Scenes of successful battles, showing the king at the head of his armies triumphing over the chaotic enemy, appear prominently on temple walls as proof of the ruler\u2019s abilities. Later in the New Kingdom, repeated incursions from outside forces (such as the Libyans and the migratory Sea Peoples), weakened the country, eventually leading to a fracturing of centralized control and the Third Intermediate Period.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"new-kingdom-c.-15501070-b.c.e.\">New Kingdom (c. 1550\u20131070 B.C.E.)<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1595\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1595\" style=\"width: 1428px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1595\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image77.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of sphinxes, the first pylon, and the central east-west aisle of Temple of Amon-Ra, Karnak in Luxor featuring large sandstone walls and rows of sphinx statues lining a wide stone pathway. The scene highlights architectural grandeur and historical significance with clear blue sky and sparse greenery framing the structure.\" width=\"1428\" height=\"876\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image77.jpeg 1428w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image77-300x184.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image77-1024x628.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image77-768x471.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image77-65x40.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image77-225x138.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image77-350x215.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1428px) 100vw, 1428px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1595\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">View of sphinxes, the first pylon, and the central east-west aisle of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/temple-of-amun-re-and-the-hypostyle-hall-karnak\/\">Temple of Amon-Ra, Karnak in Luxor<\/a>, Egypt (photo: Mark Fox, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Spanning more than 500 years and encompassing Dynasties 18\u201320,\u00a0the New Kingdom is often considered to be the peak of ancient Egyptian culture. The early Eighteenth Dynasty rulers were warrior kings who carried out numerous military campaigns to expand their borders and areas of control, both to the north and the south.\u00a0These incursions were primarily intended to create a buffer around the Egyptian homeland, exploit valuable resources, and gain control of trade routes.<\/p>\n<p>Eager to reestablish a centralized authority after the chaos of the Second Intermediate Period, the royal court moved back to Memphis,\u00a0the ancient seat of power from the golden age of the great pyramids. Thebes, however, remained the religious capital.\u00a0The local god Amun was merged with the sun god Ra and became Amun-Ra\u2014King of the Gods. Amun\u2019s shrine at\u00a0Karnak\u00a0developed into the largest temple complex in the country.<\/p>\n<p>A new royal burial site, now known as the Valley of the Kings, was initiated in the hills on the west side of the Nile from Thebes;\u00a0the first royal tomb cut into the cliffs was for Thutmosis I.\u00a0Kings dug deep subterranean tombs into the limestone Valley and paired those hidden tombs with grand memorial temples, constructed closer to the Nile edge of cultivation, that served to maintain the king\u2019s cult after death.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1596\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1596\" style=\"width: 960px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1596\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image78.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Egyptian temple complex set against a backdrop of rugged desert cliffs under a partly cloudy blue sky. The temple features a long central ramp leading to a colonnaded structure with multiple rectangular columns, flanked by a sphinx statue in the foreground.\" width=\"960\" height=\"643\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image78.jpeg 960w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image78-300x201.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image78-768x514.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image78-65x44.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image78-225x151.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image78-350x234.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 960px) 100vw, 960px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1596\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Temple of Queen Hatshepsut, Dayr al-Ba\u1e25r\u012b, Egypt, c. 1470 B.C.E. (Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Temple_of_Hatshepsut.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>One of the most stunning structures from the ancient world is one of these memorial temples, which stands against the dramatic cliffs at Deir el Bahri just opposite the Valley of the Kings. This terraced temple was built by Hatshepsut, the powerful female ruler who controlled Egypt for roughly 20 years at the height of the Eighteenth Dynasty. She built her memorial monument directly adjacent to the memorial temple of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II, founder of the Middle Kingdom, clearly identifying her righteous rule as a continuation of those who came before.<\/p>\n<p>After ongoing military campaigns under Thutmosis III led to Egypt\u2019s furthest borders, later kings sought more diplomatic solutions in their relations with other powers in the Near East. These included diplomatic marriages, such as that between Thutmosis IV and the daughter of Mitannian ruler Artatama, and greatly reduced expansionist tendencies. This led to an era of wealth and relative peace under Thutmosis IV\u2019s successor, Amenhotep III. This king focused on developing the religious landscape\u2014enlarging numerous existing chapels and founding several new temples, including the magnificent\u00a0Luxor Temple. He commissioned an incredible number of divine statues to emphasize his connections to the gods, and authorized some images that gave himself and his<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/portrait-head-of-queen-tiye-with-a-crown-of-two-feathers\/\">\u00a0chief wife, Tiye<\/a>, divine attributes.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1597\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1597\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/02\/7670423810_da89de5145_o-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1597\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image79.jpeg\" alt=\"Bas-relief carving depicts two seated ancient Egyptian figures facing each other, with a child sitting on the lap of the figure on the right. Sun disk with rays ending in hands appears above, surrounded by hieroglyphic inscriptions.\" width=\"870\" height=\"540\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image79.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image79-300x186.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image79-768x477.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image79-65x40.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image79-225x140.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image79-350x217.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1597\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">House Altar depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Three of their Daughters, limestone, New Kingdom, Amarna period, 18th dynasty, c.1350 BCE (\u00c4gyptisches Museum\/Neues Museum, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/profzucker\/7670418962\/in\/photostream\/\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Their son was Amenhotep IV, who changed his name early in his reign to<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/house-altar-depicting-akhenaten-nefertiti-and-three-of-their-daughters\/\">\u00a0Akhenaten<\/a>. Akhenaten and his<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/thutmose-model-bust-of-queen-nefertiti\/\">\u00a0chief wife, Nefertiti<\/a>, were dedicated to the cult of the Aten, a specific form of the sun god that manifested as a disc. Akhenaten made the radical choice to move the capital to a brand new location at Akhet-Aten (modern Amarna) and centralized control, both secular and religious, in himself as the sole representative of the Aten on earth. In general, this significant break with tradition was not well-received and it did not last.<\/p>\n<p>Akhenaten\u2019s young successor and son\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/tutankhamuns-tomb-innermost-coffin-and-death-mask\/\">Tutankhamun<\/a>\u00a0(better known as King Tut), moved the religious capital back to Thebes, re-establishing Amun-Ra as the chief national deity. Akhenaten\u2019s reign was viewed as a time of chaos by later kings;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-egyptian-chronology-historical-framework\/\">\u00a0the king list at Seti I\u2019s temple in Abydos<\/a>\u00a0jumps from Amenhotep III directly to Horemhab, completely skipping over the contentious reigns of Akhenaten and his immediate successors, Tutankhamun and Ay.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1598\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1598\" style=\"width: 840px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/12\/Egypt_Abou_Simbel6.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1598\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image80.jpeg\" alt=\"Bas-relief carving depicting an ancient Egyptian warrior in a dynamic pose, holding a weapon and subduing two enemies beneath him. Surrounding hieroglyphic inscriptions provide historical context, with detailed figures and symbolic elements carved into stone.\" width=\"840\" height=\"648\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image80.jpeg 840w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image80-300x231.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image80-768x592.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image80-65x50.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image80-225x174.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image80-350x270.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 840px) 100vw, 840px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1598\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Ramses II ruled for 67 years. Here he is shown slaying an enemy while he tramples on an other in the battle of Kadesh in 1274 B.C.E., inside Abu Simbel, Egypt (photo: Aoineko, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Early Nineteenth Dynasty kings resumed military campaigns and re-established Egyptian authority over parts of the Near East. One of the best-known kings from Egypt was Rameses II. He ruled for sixty-seven years, fought great battles with the Hittites, and constructed a huge number of monuments throughout the country. Triumphant battle scenes adorn many of these temples, many depicting the battle of Kadesh despite the fact that he didn\u2019t actually conquer the Hittites\u2014the conflict was instead settled by negotiation and diplomatic agreements.<\/p>\n<p>Later kings of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties faced successive waves of invasions by foreign powers, such as the Libyans and the enigmatic migratory group known as the Sea Peoples. These conflicts were an obvious strain and led to the reduction of the king\u2019s reach and sphere of influence. By the end of the Twentieth Dynasty, the pharaoh ruling from Memphis had little apparent control over a powerful family in Thebes whose members served as high priests at Karnak and who endowed themselves with royal titles.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"third-intermediate-period-c.-1070713-b.c.e.\">Third Intermediate Period (c. 1070\u2013713 B.C.E.)<\/h3>\n<p>This era was characterized by a distinct split between north and south. During the Twenty-first Dynasty, the kings ruled from the delta while the south was controlled by the high priests of Amun at Thebes. These ruling families were related and often intermarried, helping to maintain a sense of continuity.<\/p>\n<p>Many social and religious customs changed, including the royal mortuary practices.\u00a0The Twenty-first Dynasty kings at Tanis in the delta initiated a completely new form of royal burial where the burial chamber and chapel were contained within a temple precinct, in the courtyard of the god\u2019s temple, a design that remained in use for royal burials until the Ptolemaic period. Several of these tombs were discovered intact with silver coffins, incredible jewelry, and marvelous vessels. The elaborately decorated private tombs of the New Kingdom became less common. Focus was shifted to remarkable painted coffins, papyri, and wooden stelae that presented most of the required imagery for the ritual provisioning for the afterlife.<\/p>\n<p>Highly skilled metalworking during this time is evidenced in small-scale metal sculptures of divine, royal, and private individuals. These were often exquisitely finished with multiple metals inlaid into the surface in delicate patterns. One of the most beautiful examples is that of Karomama, a queen and\u00a0Divine Adoratrice\u00a0of Amun. This elegant statue (53 cm in height) was hollow-cast in bronze and intricately inlaid with gold, silver, and copper to create the elaborate patterns of her costume.<\/p>\n<p>During the Twenty-second Dynasty, a Libyan chieftain who had risen through the ranks became king in the north. He also placed several members of his family in top positions in the Amun priesthood at Karnak in an effort to exercise control over the south. However, later in the dynasty this practice led to a civil war between the regions. Subsequent rulers further complicated royal control when an offshoot of the Libyan royal family founded a rival dynasty that was favored by the Thebans. This period of political instability encouraged local governors to exercise their own authority, further exacerbating the situation.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1599\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1599\" style=\"width: 800px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1599\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image81.png\" alt=\"Map illustrating ancient Egypt and Kush regions along the Nile River, highlighting Upper Egypt, Lower Egypt, and surrounding deserts with labeled cities and landmarks. Key features include Mediterranean Sea to the north, Red Sea to the east, and notable locations such as Memphis, Thebes, and Napata, emphasizing geographic and political divisions.\" width=\"800\" height=\"1633\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image81.png 800w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image81-147x300.png 147w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image81-502x1024.png 502w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image81-768x1568.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image81-752x1536.png 752w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image81-65x133.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image81-225x459.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image81-350x714.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 800px) 100vw, 800px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1599\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Map of Kush and Ancient Egypt, showing the Nile up to the fifth cataract, and major cities and sites of the ancient Egyptian Dynastic period (c. 3150\u201330 B.C.) (map: Jeff Dahl, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>At this same time, to the south in Nubia, the kingdom of Kush was again on the rise.\u00a0They pushed their borders north to Thebes, establishing themselves as kings of Egypt and founding the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, bringing the disjointed Third Intermediate Period to a close.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"ancient-egyptian-religious-practices-temple-of-amun-re-and-the-hypostyle-hall-karnak\">Ancient Egyptian Religious Practices: Temple of Amun-Re and the Hypostyle Hall, Karnak<\/h2>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1600\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1600\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/AmunRaEastWest.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1600\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image82.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of sphinxes, the first pylon, and the central east-west aisle of Temple of Amon-Ra, Karnak in Luxor featuring large sandstone walls and rows of sphinx statues lining a wide stone pathway. The scene highlights architectural grandeur and historical significance with clear blue sky and sparse greenery framing the structure.\" width=\"870\" height=\"534\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image82.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image82-300x184.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image82-768x471.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image82-65x40.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image82-225x138.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image82-350x215.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1600\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">View of sphinxes, the first pylon, and the central east-west aisle of Temple of Amon-Re, Karnak in Luxor, Egypt (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/dUNcs2\">Mark Fox<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The massive temple complex of Karnak was the principal religious center of the god Amun-Re in Thebes during the\u00a0New Kingdom\u00a0(which lasted from 1550 until 1070 B.C.E.). The complex remains one of the largest religious complexes in the world. However, Karnak was not just one temple dedicated to one god\u2014it held not only the main precinct to the god\u00a0Amun-Re\u2014but also the precincts of the gods\u00a0Mut\u00a0and\u00a0Montu. Compared to other temple compounds that survive from ancient Egypt, Karnak is in a poor state of preservation but it still gives scholars a wealth of information about Egyptian religion and art.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-most-select-of-places\">\u201cThe Most Select of Places\u201d<\/h3>\n<p>The site was first developed during the Middle Kingdom (2055\u20131650 B.C.E.) and was initially modest in scale but as new importance was placed on the city of Thebes, subsequent pharaohs began to place their own mark on Karnak. The main precinct alone would eventually have as many as twenty temples and chapels. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"R. Wilkinson,\u00a0The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt\u00a0(New York: Thames &amp; Hudson, 2000), p. 154.\" id=\"return-footnote-1609-1\" href=\"#footnote-1609-1\" aria-label=\"Footnote 1\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[1]<\/sup><\/a> Karnak was known in ancient times as \u201cThe Most Select of Places\u201d (<em>Ipet-isut<\/em>) and was not only the location of the cult image of Amun and a place for the god to dwell on earth but also a working estate for the priestly community who lived on site. Additional buildings included a sacred lake, kitchens, and workshops for the production of religious accoutrements.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1601\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1601\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/AmunReMap.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1601\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image83.jpeg\" alt=\"A labeled architectural model depicting Precinct of Amon-Re, Karnak complex with key structures such as Temple of Amun-Re, Hypostyle Hall, pylons, and Sacred Lake. Red text labels highlight important areas and directions, illustrating layout and spatial relationships within the complex.\" width=\"870\" height=\"515\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image83.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image83-300x178.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image83-768x455.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image83-65x38.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image83-225x133.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image83-350x207.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1601\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Model of the Precinct of Amon-Re, Karnak (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Karnak_model.JPG\">R\u00e9mih<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The main temple of Amun-Re had two axes\u2014one that went north\/south and the other that extended east\/west. The southern axis continued towards the temple of Luxor and was connected by an avenue of ram-headed sphinxes.<\/p>\n<p>While the sanctuary was plundered for stone in ancient times, there are still a number of unique architectural features within this vast complex. For example, the tallest\u00a0obelisk\u00a0in Egypt stood at Karnak and was dedicated by the female pharaoh Hatshepsut who ruled Egypt during the New Kingdom. Made of one piece of red granite, it originally had a matching obelisk that was removed by the Roman emperor Constantine and re-erected in Rome. Another unusual feature was the Festival Temple of Thutmose III, which had columns that represented tent poles, a feature this pharaoh was no doubt familiar with from his many war campaigns.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1602\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1602\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/AmunReColumns.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1602\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image84.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of ancient Egyptian columns inside a Karnak at Luxor showcasing faded red, blue, and beige paint with hieroglyphic carvings on the ceiling and walls. Columns feature distinct bands of color and weathered patches.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1168\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image84.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image84-223x300.jpeg 223w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image84-763x1024.jpeg 763w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image84-768x1031.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image84-65x87.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image84-225x302.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image84-350x470.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1602\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">\u201cTent pole\u201d columns, Festival Temple of Thutmose III, c. 1479\u201325 B.C.E., sandstone, mud brick, paint, Karnak, at Luxor, Egypt (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/4nWwrL\">Dennis Jarvis<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"hypostyle-hall\">Hypostyle hall<\/h3>\n<p>One of the greatest architectural marvels of Karnak is the hypostyle hall (a space with a roof supported by columns) built during the\u00a0Ramesside period. The hall has 134 massive sandstone columns with the center twelve columns standing at 69 feet. Like most of the temple decoration, the hall would have been brightly painted and some of this paint still exists on the upper portions of the columns and ceiling today. With the center of the hall taller than the spaces on either side, the Egyptians allowed for\u00a0clerestory\u00a0lighting (a section of wall that allowed light and air into the otherwise dark space below). In fact, the earliest evidence for clerestory lighting comes from Egypt. Not many ancient Egyptians would have had access to this hall, since the further one went into the temple, the more restricted access became.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1603\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1603\" style=\"width: 1256px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1603\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image85.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Hypostyle hall from Karnak with ancient stone columns arranged in rows within a large open structure, showcasing intricate carvings and hieroglyphs on the surfaces. Columns vary in size and detail, with light filtering through gaps, highlighting architectural grandeur and historical significance.\" width=\"1256\" height=\"1980\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image85.jpeg 1256w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image85-190x300.jpeg 190w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image85-650x1024.jpeg 650w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image85-768x1211.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image85-974x1536.jpeg 974w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image85-65x102.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image85-225x355.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image85-350x552.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1256px) 100vw, 1256px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1603\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Hypostyle Hall, c. 1250 B.C.E. (hall), 18th and 19th Dynasties, New Kingdom, sandstone and mud brick, Karnak, at Luxor, Egypt (Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Karnak_Hypostyle_Hall_R05.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"temple-as-cosmos\">Temple as cosmos<\/h3>\n<p>Conceptually, temples in Egypt were connected to the idea of <em>zep tepi<\/em>, or \u201cthe first time,\u201d the beginnings of the creation of the world. The temple was a reflection of this time, when the mound of creation emerged from the primeval waters. The pylons, or gateways in the temple represent the horizon, and as one moves further into the temple, the floor rises until it reaches the sanctuary of the god, giving the impression of a rising mound, like that during creation. The temple roof represented the sky and was often decorated with stars and birds. The columns were designed with lotus, papyrus, and palm plants in order to reflect the marsh-like environment of creation. The outer areas of Karnak, which was located near the Nile River, would flood during the annual inundation\u2014an intentional effect by the ancient designers no doubt, in order to enhance the temple\u2019s symbolism. <a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Wilkinson (2000), p. 77.\" id=\"return-footnote-1609-2\" href=\"#footnote-1609-2\" aria-label=\"Footnote 2\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1604\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1604\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/AmunRePlan.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1604\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image86.jpeg\" alt=\"Architectural floor plan of the Great Temple of Ammon at Karnak, detailing layout of various chambers, halls, and courtyards. Includes labeled sections such as the Hypostyle Hall, Sanctuary, and surrounding walls, with scale and directional markers for orientation.\" width=\"870\" height=\"475\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image86.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image86-300x164.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image86-768x419.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image86-65x35.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image86-225x123.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image86-350x191.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1604\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Plan of the Temple of Amon-Re, Karnak<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 id=\"mortuary-temple-and-large-kneeling-statue-of-hatshepsut\">Mortuary Temple and Large Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut<\/h2>\n<p>Egyptian kings were typically men, but Hatshepsut became pharaoh and used art to convey her divine and royal authority. Hatshepsut controlled Egypt for roughly 20 years at the height of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Built opposite the Valley of the Kings on the west side of the Nile from Thebes, the Mortuary temple to Hatshepsut served to assert her authority and connect her reign with Egyptian pharaohs of the past.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut and Large Kneeling Statue, New Kingdom, Egypt\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/pZOUV_rTyj0?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"amarna-style-house-altar-depicting-akhenaten-nefertiti-and-three-of-their-daughters\">Amarna Style: House Altar depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Three of their Daughters<\/h2>\n<p>Upon becoming pharaoh, Akhenaten revolutionized the religion and artistic style of Egypt\u2014at least until his death. The son of Amenhotep III and Tiye, Amenhotep IV changed his name to Akhenaten. Akhenaten was dedicated to Aten, a form of the sun god who manifested as a disc. He relocated the capital from Thebes to Akhet Aten (Amarna) and took control as the singular representative of Aten. Akhenaten\u2019s reforms developed into an artistic style remarkably different from traditional Egyptian conventions.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Akhenaten, Nefertiti, and Three Daughters\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/ryycDVWXDvc?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"from-amarna-back-to-tradition-tutankhamuns-tomb-innermost-coffin-and-death-mask\">From Amarna back to tradition: Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb (innermost coffin and death mask)<\/h2>\n<p>Akhenaten\u2019s young successor and son\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/tutankhamuns-tomb-innermost-coffin-and-death-mask\/\">Tutankhamun<\/a>\u00a0(better known as King Tut), moved the religious capital back to Thebes, re-establishing Amun-Ra as the chief national deity. Akhenaten\u2019s reign was viewed as a time of chaos by later kings. Later pharaohs intentionally removed the record of Akhenaten and his immediate successors, Tutankhamun and Ay.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"nearly-lost-to-history\">Nearly lost to history<\/h3>\n<p>Tutankhamun was only the age of nine when he became\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/egyptian-social-organization-pharaoh\/\">king of Egypt<\/a>\u00a0during the 18th dynasty of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/new-kingdom-third-intermediate-period-introduction\/\">New Kingdom<\/a>\u00a0(c. 1332\u20131323 B.C.E.). His story would have been lost to history if it were not for the discovery of his tomb in 1922 by the archaeologist Howard Carter in the Valley of the Kings. His nearly intact tomb held a wealth of objects that give us unique insights into this period of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-egypt\/\">ancient Egyptian history<\/a>.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1605\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1605\" style=\"width: 1110px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/01\/Egypt_NK_edit-BH1500.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1605\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image87.jpeg\" alt=\"Map showing Egyptian Empire around 1500 B.C.E., highlighting territorial extent in light green along Nile River, including key cities Memphis, Amarna, Thebes, and Valley of the Kings. Surrounding regions such as Libya, Nubia, Kush, Hittite Empire, Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia are labeled, with major bodies of water like Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, and Persian Gulf marked in blue.\" width=\"1110\" height=\"1147\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image87.jpeg 1110w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image87-290x300.jpeg 290w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image87-991x1024.jpeg 991w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image87-768x794.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image87-65x67.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image87-225x233.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image87-350x362.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1110px) 100vw, 1110px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1605\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">New Kingdom of the Egyptian Empire, c. 1500 B.C.E.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Tutankhamun ruled after the Amarna age, when the pharaoh\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/house-altar-depicting-akhenaten-nefertiti-and-three-of-their-daughters\/\">Akhenaten<\/a>, Tutankhamun\u2019s probable father, turned the religious attention of the kingdom to the worship of the god Aten, the sun disc. Akhenaten moved his capital city to the site of Akhetaten (also known as Amarna), in Middle Egypt\u2014far from the previous pharaoh\u2019s capital. After Akhenaten\u2019s death and the rule of a short-lived pharaoh, Smenkhkare, Tutankhamen shifted the focus of the country\u2019s worship back to the god\u00a0Amun\u00a0and returned the religious center back to Thebes.<\/p>\n<p>Tutankhamun married his half-sister, Ankhesenamun, but they did not produce an heir. This left the line of succession unclear. Tutankhamun died at the young age of eighteen, leading many scholars to speculate on the manner of his death\u2014chariot accident, murder by blow to the head, and even a hippopotamus attack! The answer is still unclear. Tutankhamun\u2019s much-older advisor (and possible step-grandfather),\u00a0Ay, married the widowed Ankhesenamun and became pharaoh.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-tomb\">The tomb<\/h3>\n<p>During the early twentieth century, Howard Carter, a British Egyptologist, excavated for many years in the Valley of the Kings\u2014a royal burial ground located on the west bank of the ancient city of Thebes. He was running out of money to support his archaeological digs when he asked for funding for one more season from his financial backer, the fifth Earl of Carnarvon. Lord Carnarvon granted him one more year\u2014and what a year it was!<\/p>\n<p>At the beginning of November 1922, Carter came upon the first of twelve steps of the entrance that led to the tomb of Tutankhamun. He quickly recovered the steps and sent a telegram to Carnarvon in England so they could open the tomb together. Carnarvon departed for Egypt immediately and on November 26, 1922, they made a hole in the entrance of the antechamber in order to look in. Carter states:<\/p>\n<p>\u201cAt first I could see nothing, the hot air escaping from the chamber causing the candle flame to flicker, but presently, as my eyes grew accustomed to the lights, details of the room within emerged slowly from the mist, strange animals, statues, and gold\u2014everywhere the glint of gold.<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Howard Carter and\u00a0A. C. Mace,\u00a0The Tomb of Tut-ankh-amen, volume 1 (New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1933), pp. 95\u201396.\" id=\"return-footnote-1609-3\" href=\"#footnote-1609-3\" aria-label=\"Footnote 3\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[3]<\/sup><\/a>\u201d<\/p>\n<p>The task of cataloging the finds was an immense undertaking for the team. Carter spent a decade systematically recording the finds and having them photographed.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-innermost-coffin\">The innermost coffin<\/h3>\n<p>Tutankhamun\u2019s sarcophagus (a box-like stone container) held not one but three coffins in which to hold the body of the king. The outer two coffins were crafted in wood and covered in gold along with many semiprecious stones, such as lapis lazuli and turquoise.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1606\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1606\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/tut-coffin-long.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1606\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image88.jpeg\" alt=\"A photograph of Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb, innermost coffin sarcophagus made of gold, featuring detailed engravings and colorful inlays on the chest and head area. The sarcophagus showcases traditional Egyptian artistic elements, including a headdress, crossed arms, and intricate wing designs symbolizing protection.\" width=\"870\" height=\"280\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image88.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image88-300x97.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image88-768x247.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image88-65x21.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image88-225x72.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image88-350x113.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1606\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb, innermost coffin, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty, c. 1323 B.C.E., gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones (Egyptian Museum, Cairo, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/www.flickr.com\/photos\/profzucker\/15618376030\/in\/photostream\/\">Smarthistory, Flickr<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The inner coffin, however, was made of solid gold. When Howard Carter first came upon this coffin, it was not the shiny golden image we see in the Egyptian Museum today. In his excavation notes, Carter states, it was<\/p>\n<p>\u201ccovered with a thick black pitch-like layer which extended from the hands down to the ankles (top image). This was obviously an anointing liquid which had been poured over the coffin during the burial ceremony and in great quantity (some two buckets full).<a class=\"footnote\" title=\"Nicholas Reeves,\u00a0The Complete Tutankhamun\u00a0(London: Thames and Hudson, 1990), pp. 108\u201309.\" id=\"return-footnote-1609-4\" href=\"#footnote-1609-4\" aria-label=\"Footnote 4\"><sup class=\"footnote\">[4]<\/sup><\/a>\u201d<\/p>\n<p>The image of the pharaoh is that of a god.\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/egyptian-deities\/\">The gods<\/a>\u00a0were thought to have skin of gold, bones of silver, and hair of lapis lazuli\u2014so the king is shown here in his divine form in the afterlife. He holds the crook and flail, symbols of the king\u2019s right to rule. The goddesses\u00a0Nekhbet (vulture)\u00a0and\u00a0Wadjet (cobra), inlaid with semiprecious stones, stretch their wings across his torso. Beneath these goddesses are two more\u2014Isis\u00a0and\u00a0Nephthys\u2014etched into the gold lid.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1607\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1607\" style=\"width: 366px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1607\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image89.png\" alt=\"Illustration of two ancient Egyptian symbols of authority: a blue and gold striped crook and flail crossed over each other. Crook features a curved top, while flail has three gold strands with red and blue decorations near the handle.\" width=\"366\" height=\"326\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image89.png 366w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image89-300x267.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image89-65x58.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image89-225x200.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image89-350x312.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 366px) 100vw, 366px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1607\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Egyptian crook and flail (by:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Crook_and_flail.svg\">Jeff Dahl<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/4.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 4.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"the-death-mask-of-tutankhamun\">The death mask of Tutankhamun<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1608\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1608\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/tut-death-mask.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1608\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image90.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Death Mask from innermost coffin, Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb, featuring gold and blue striped headdress with intricate inlays of colored stones along the collar. The mask displays a stylized beard and cobra emblem on the forehead, symbolizing royalty and divine protection.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1088\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image90.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image90-240x300.jpeg 240w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image90-819x1024.jpeg 819w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image90-768x960.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image90-65x81.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image90-225x281.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image90-350x438.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1608\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Death Mask from innermost coffin, Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb, New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty, c. 1323 B.C.E., gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones (Egyptian Museum, Cairo) (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:CairoEgMuseumTaaMaskMostlyPhotographed.jpg\">Roland Unger<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The death mask is considered one of the masterpieces of Egyptian art. It originally rested directly on the shoulders of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/mummification-and-funeral-rites\/\">mummy<\/a>\u00a0inside the innermost gold coffin. It is constructed of two sheets of gold that were hammered together and weighs 22.5 pounds (10.23 kg). Tutankhamen is depicted wearing the striped nemes headdress (the striped head-cloth typically worn by pharaohs in ancient Egypt) with the goddesses Nekhbet and Wadjet depicted again protecting his brow. He also wears a false beard that further connects him to the image of a god as with the inner coffin. He wears a broad collar, which ends in terminals shaped as falcon heads. The back of the mask is covered with Spell 151b from the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-egyptian-mortuary-texts\/\">Book of the Dead<\/a>, which the Egyptians used as a road map for the afterlife. This particular spell protects the various limbs of Tutankhamun as he moves into the underworld.<\/p>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>The <em>Death Mask of Tutankhamun<\/em> is an iconic work of art. Egyptian artists seamlessly blended the formal elements with iconographic symbolism. As a <strong>figurative form<\/strong>, the viewer can clearly identify the <strong>idealized<\/strong> portrait of an Egyptian king. Almost perfectly symmetrical in <strong>composition<\/strong>, the artists crafted the smooth <strong>texture<\/strong> of golden <strong>color<\/strong> skin for Tutankhamun. Black <strong>contour lines<\/strong> define the eyes while Tutankhamun wears the <strong>patterned<\/strong> nemes headdress alternating with the <strong>colors<\/strong> of blue and gold. A similar alternating <strong>pattern of color<\/strong> occurs on the false beard. The <strong>rectilinear lines<\/strong> of the striped nemes lead the viewer\u2019s eye toward the face of the youthful, expressionless king.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-3\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n<p>With Tutankhamun\u2019s reign and death, Egypt returned to its long-standing traditional polytheistic religion and artistic style. Interestingly, Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb featured artifacts showing elements of the Amarna style begun by Akhenaten. This includes Tutankhamun\u2019s throne. However, other artworks found in Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb, from the death mask to the innermost coffin, utilized the traditional Egyptian style: youthful, front facing, symmetrical, and idealized. Tutankhamun is shown with royal symbols, including the crook and flail in the coffin and the false beard, uraeus, and nemes in the death mask. These stylistic features and symbols connected back to the traditional symbols of ancient Egyptian kingship used since the predynastic and Old Kingdom periods.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-3\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\n<p>The following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and are licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\n<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\n<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\n<li>Conclusion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Dr. Amy Calvert, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/new-kingdom-third-intermediate-period-introduction\/\">New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, February 14, 2022.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Elizabeth Cummins, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/temple-of-amun-re-and-the-hypostyle-hall-karnak\/\">Temple of Amun-Re and the Hypostyle Hall, Karnak<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, November 27, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/hatshepsut\/\">Mortuary Temple and Large Kneeling Statue of Hatshepsut<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 9, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/house-altar-depicting-akhenaten-nefertiti-and-three-of-their-daughters\/\"><em>House Altar depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and Three of their Daughters<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 6, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Elizabeth Cummins, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/tutankhamuns-tomb-innermost-coffin-and-death-mask\/\">Tutankhamun\u2019s tomb (innermost coffin and death mask)<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr class=\"before-footnotes clear\" \/><div class=\"footnotes\"><ol><li id=\"footnote-1609-1\">R. Wilkinson,\u00a0<em>The Complete Temples of Ancient Egypt<\/em>\u00a0(New York: Thames &amp; Hudson, 2000), p. 154. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1609-1\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 1\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1609-2\">Wilkinson (2000), p. 77. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1609-2\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 2\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1609-3\">Howard Carter and\u00a0A. C. Mace,\u00a0<em>The Tomb of Tut-ankh-amen<\/em>, volume 1 (New York: Cooper Square Publishers, 1933), pp. 95\u201396. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1609-3\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 3\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><li id=\"footnote-1609-4\">Nicholas Reeves,\u00a0<em>The Complete Tutankhamun<\/em>\u00a0(London: Thames and Hudson, 1990), pp. 108\u201309. <a href=\"#return-footnote-1609-4\" class=\"return-footnote\" aria-label=\"Return to footnote 4\">&crarr;<\/a><\/li><\/ol><\/div>","protected":false},"author":2,"menu_order":6,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1609","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1609","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"version-history":[{"count":2,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1609\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1981,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1609\/revisions\/1981"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1609\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1609"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1609"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1609"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1609"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}