{"id":1555,"date":"2026-07-16T17:27:56","date_gmt":"2026-07-16T17:27:56","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/chapter\/ancient-civilizations-of-mesopotamia\/"},"modified":"2026-07-27T17:15:11","modified_gmt":"2026-07-27T17:15:11","slug":"ancient-civilizations-of-mesopotamia","status":"publish","type":"chapter","link":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/chapter\/ancient-civilizations-of-mesopotamia\/","title":{"raw":"Ancient Civilizations of Mesopotamia","rendered":"Ancient Civilizations of Mesopotamia"},"content":{"raw":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-1\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\r\nThe earliest civilization on the planet was the Ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia is called the \u201cland between two rivers,\u201d referring to the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. The Ancient Sumerians in the region of present-day Iraq introduced many foundational aspects of civilization, including farming, the wheel, and writing. They also established artistic conventions still in use today, such as registers and hierarchy of scale. The content on Ancient Mesopotamia spans several periods. Unlike its neighboring civilization of Egypt, Mesopotamia consisted of a series of successive ruling civilizations: Sumerians, Akkadians, Neo-Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Neo-Babylonians, and more. The chapter highlights several of these civilizations and closes with an introduction to the Achaemenid Empire of Ancient Persia, which conquered the lands of Ancient Mesopotamia.\r\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-1\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li><em>The Standard of Ur<\/em>, 2600\u20132400 B.C.E., shell, limestone, lapis lazuli, and bitumen, Sumerian<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Stele of Naram-sin<\/em>, c. 2254-2218 B.C.E., pink sandstone, Akkadian<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Ziggurat of Ur<\/em>, c. 2100 B.C.E., mud brick and baked brick, Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq, Neo-Sumerian<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions<\/em>, gypsum hall relief from the North Palace, Ninevah, c. 645-635 B.C.E., Assyrian<\/li>\r\n \t<li><em>Ishtar Gate and Processional Way<\/em> (Reconstruction), Babylon, c. 575 B.C.E., glazed mud brick, Neo-Babylonian<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h3 id=\"term-list-1\">Term List<\/h3>\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Mesopotamia<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Tigris and Euphrates<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Sumer<\/li>\r\n \t<li>City-state<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Theocracy<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Cuneiform<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Registers<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Hierarchy of scale<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Akkad<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Stela<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ziggurat<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Assyria<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Low relief carving<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Neo-Babylonia<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Achaemenids (Persia)<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Ap\u0101dana<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\n<h2 id=\"sumer-an-introduction\">Sumer, an introduction<\/h2>\r\nSumer was home to some of the oldest known cities, supported by a focus on agriculture. The region of southern\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-near-east-cradle-of-civilization\/\">Mesopotamia<\/a>\u00a0is known as Sumer, and it is in Sumer that we find some of the oldest known cities, including Ur and Uruk.\r\n<h3 id=\"uruk\">Uruk<\/h3>\r\nPrehistory ends with Uruk, where we find some of the earliest written records. This large city-state (and it environs) was largely dedicated to agriculture and eventually dominated southern Mesopotamia. Uruk perfected Mesopotamian irrigation and administration systems.\r\n<h3 id=\"an-agricultural-theocracy\">An agricultural theocracy<\/h3>\r\nWithin the city of Uruk, there was a large temple complex dedicated to Innana, the patron goddess of the city. The City-State\u2019s agricultural production would be \u201cgiven\u201d to her and stored at her temple. Harvested crops would then be processed (grain ground into flour, barley fermented into beer) and given back to the citizens of Uruk in equal share at regular intervals.\r\n\r\nThe head of the temple administration, the chief priest of Innana, also served as political leader, making Uruk the first known theocracy.\u00a0We know many details about this theocratic administration because the Sumerians left numerous documents in the form of tablets written in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/cuneiform\/\">cuneiform<\/a>\u00a0script.\r\n\r\nIt is almost impossible to imagine a time before writing. However, you might be disappointed to learn that writing was not invented to record stories, poetry, or prayers to a god. The first fully developed written script, cuneiform, was invented to account for something unglamorous, but very important\u2014surplus commodities: bushels of barley, head of cattle, and jars of oil!\r\n\r\nThe origin of written language (c. 3200 B.C.E.) was born out of economic necessity and was a tool of the theocratic (priestly) ruling elite who needed to keep track of the agricultural wealth of the city-states. The last known document written in the cuneiform script dates to the first century C.E. Only the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/multilingualism-egypt-nile\/\">hieroglyphic script<\/a>\u00a0of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-egypt-an-introduction\/\">Ancient Egyptians<\/a>\u00a0lasted longer.\r\n<h3 id=\"a-reed-and-clay-tablet\">A reed and clay tablet<\/h3>\r\nA single reed, cleanly cut from the banks of the Euphrates or Tigris river, when pressed cut-edge down into a soft clay tablet, will make a wedge shape. The arrangement of multiple wedge shapes (as few as two and as many as ten) created cuneiform characters. Characters could be written either horizontally or vertically, although a horizontal arrangement was more widely used.\r\n\r\nVery few cuneiform signs have only one meaning; most have as many as four. Cuneiform signs could represent a whole word or an idea or a number. Most frequently though, they represented a syllable. A cuneiform syllable could be a vowel alone, a consonant plus a vowel, a vowel plus a consonant and even a consonant plus a vowel plus a consonant. There isn\u2019t a sound that a human mouth can make that this script can\u2019t record.\r\n\r\nProbably because of this extraordinary flexibility, the range of languages that were written with cuneiform across history of the Ancient Near East is vast and includes Sumerian,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/art-of-akkad-an-introduction\/\">Akkadian<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/amorites-an-introduction\/\">Amorite<\/a>, Hurrian, Urartian,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/hittites-introduction\/\">Hittite<\/a>, Luwian, Palaic, Hatian, and Elamite.\r\n<h2 id=\"standard-of-ur-and-other-objects-from-the-royal-graves\"><em>Standard of Ur<\/em>\u00a0and other objects from the Royal Graves<\/h2>\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=JWl6eolbQ2g\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1532\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/50810775067_6e072e3c31_o.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1532\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image18.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient trapezoidal artifact decorated with three horizontal registers of detailed human and animal figures in relief. The artifact features vibrant blue and gold colors, depicting scenes of daily life and ceremonial events, with additional smaller animal motifs on the side panels.\" width=\"870\" height=\"621\" \/><\/a> <em>The<\/em> <em>Standard of Ur<\/em>, 2600\u20132400 B.C.E., shell, limestone, lapis lazuli, and bitumen, 21.59 x 49.53 x 12 cm (\u00a9 The Trustees of the British Museum, London; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2kpYvcZ\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"the-violence-and-grandeur-of-sumerian-kingship\">The violence and grandeur of Sumerian kingship<\/h3>\r\nThe\u00a0<em>Standard of Ur<\/em>\u00a0is a fascinating rectangular box-like object which, through intricate mosaic scenes, presents the violence and grandeur of Sumerian kingship. It is made up of two long flat panels of wood (and two short sides) and is covered with bitumen (a naturally occurring petroleum substance, essentially tar) in which small pieces of carved shell, red limestone, and lapis lazuli were set. It is thought to be a military standard, something common in battle for thousands of years: a readily visible object held high on a pole in the midst of the combat and paraded in victory to symbolize the army (or individual divisions of the army) of a war lord or general. Although we don\u2019t know if this object ever saw the melee of battle, it certainly witnessed a grisly scene when it was deposited in one of the royal graves at the site of Ur in the mid-3rd millennium B.C.E.\r\n\r\nIn the 1920s the British archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley worked extensively at Ur and in 1926 he uncovered a huge cemetery of nearly 2,000 burials spread over an area of 70 x 55 m (230 x 180 ft). Most graves were modest, however a group of sixteen were identified by Woolley as royal tombs because of their wealthier grave goods and treatment at interment.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1533\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/woolley.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1533\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image19.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Ur Excavations, volume II, The Royal Cemetery, Plates (British Museum, London and The University Museum, Philadelphia, 1934), plate 8 (available via the Internet Archive)\" width=\"870\" height=\"730\" \/><\/a> Sir Leonard Woolley,\u00a0Ur Excavations, volume II, The Royal Cemetery, Plates (British Museum, London and The University Museum, Philadelphia, 1934), plate 8 (available via the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/ur-excavations-ii.-the-royal-cemetery-plates\/page\/8\/mode\/2up?q=779&amp;view=theater\">Internet Archive<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nEach of these tombs contained a chamber of limestone rubble with a vaulted roof of mud bricks. The main burial of the tomb was placed in this chamber and surrounded by treasure (offerings of copper, gold, silver and jewelry of lapis lazuli, carnelian, agate, and shell). The main burial was also accompanied by several other bodies in the tomb, a mass grave outside the chamber, often called the\u00a0Death Pit. We assume that all these individuals were sacrificed at the time of the main burial in a horrific scene of deference.\r\n\r\nOne of the royal graves (PG779) had four chambers but no death pit. It had been plundered in antiquity but one room was largely untouched and had the remains of at least four individuals. In the corner of this room the remains of the\u00a0<em>Standard of Ur<\/em>\u00a0were found. One of its long sides was found lying face down in the soil with the other one face up, which lead Woolley to conclude that it was a hollow structure; additional inlay were found on either side of the short ends and appeared to fill a triangular shape and which lead to the\u00a0<em>Standard<\/em>\u00a0being reconstructed with its sloping sides. The remains of the\u00a0<em>Standard<\/em>\u00a0were found above the right shoulder of a man whom Woolley thought had carried it attached to a pole. The identification of this object as a military standard is by no means secure; the hollow shape could just as easily have been the sound box of a stringed instrument, such as the Queen\u2019s Lyre found in an adjacent tomb.\r\n<h3 id=\"war-and-peace\">War and peace<\/h3>\r\nThe two sides of the\u00a0<em>Standard<\/em>\u00a0appear to be the two poles of Sumerian kingship, war and peace.\u00a0 The war side was found face up and is divided into three registers (bands), read from the bottom up, left to right. The story begins at the bottom with war carts, each with a spearman and driver, drawn by donkeys trampling fallen enemies, distinguished by their nudity and wounds, which drip with blood. The middle band shows a group of soldiers wearing fur cloaks and carrying spears walking to the right while bound, naked enemies are executed and paraded to the top band where more are killed.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1534\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1377\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/StandardOfUrWar.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1534\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image20.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of the War (detail) on Standard of Ur, an ancient Sumerian artifact featuring detailed inlaid mosaic panels depicting scenes of war and peace. The rectangular box shows three horizontal registers with figures of soldiers, chariots, animals, and attendants, highlighted by blue lapis lazuli background and intricate ivory and shell inlays.\" width=\"1377\" height=\"643\" \/><\/a> War (detail),\u00a0<em>The Standard of Ur<\/em>, 2600\u20132400 B.C.E., shell, red limestone, lapis lazuli, and bitumen (original wood no longer exists), 21.59 x 49.53 x 12 cm (\u00a9 The Trustees of the British Museum, London; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2kpU7s9\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn the center of the top register, we find the king, holding a long spear, physically larger than everyone else, so much so, his head breaks the frame of the scene. Behind him are attendants carrying spears and battle axes and his royal war cart ready for him to jump in. There is a sense of a triumphal moment on the battlefield, when the enemy is vanquished and the victorious king is relishing his win. There is no reason to believe that this is a particular battle or king as there is nothing which identifies it as such; we think it is more of a generic image of a critically important aspect of\u00a0Ancient Near Eastern\u00a0kingship.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1535\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1374\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/StandardOfUrPeace-1.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1535\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image21.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Peace (detail), The Standard of Ur depicting a detailed narrative scene with multiple human and animal figures arranged in three horizontal registers. The artifact features intricate inlays of blue, white, and brown colors, highlighting various activities such as seated figures and standing individuals, showcasing cultural and ceremonial aspects.\" width=\"1374\" height=\"666\" \/><\/a> Peace (detail),\u00a0<em>The Standard of Ur,<\/em> 2600\u20132400 B.C.E., shell, red limestone, lapis lazuli, and bitumen (original wood no longer exists), 21.59 x 49.53 x 12 cm (\u00a9 The Trustees of the British Museum; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2kpU7HK\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe opposite peace panel also illustrates a cumulative moment, that of the celebration of the king, this time for great agricultural abundance which is afforded by peace. Again, beginning at the bottom left, we see men carrying produce on their shoulders and in bags and leading donkeys. In the central band, men lead bulls, sheep and goats, and carry fish. In the top register a grand feast is taking place, complete with comfortable seating and musical accompaniment.\r\n\r\nOn the left, the largest figure, the king, is seated wearing a richly flounce fur skirt, again so large, even seated, he breaks the frame. Was it an epic tale of battle that the singer on the far right is performing for entertainment as he plays a bull\u2019s head lyre, again, like the Queen\u2019s Lyre? We will never know but certainly such powerful images of Sumerian kingship tell us that whomever ended his life with the\u00a0<em>Standard of Ur<\/em>\u00a0on his shoulder was willing to give his life in a ritual of kingly burial.\r\n<h2 id=\"akkad-an-introduction\">Akkad, an introduction<\/h2>\r\nCompetition between Akkad in the north and Ur in the south created two centralized regional powers at the end of the third millennium. This centralization was military in nature and the art of this period generally became more martial. The Akkadian Empire was begun by Sargon, a man from a lowly family who rose to power and founded the royal city of Akkad (Akkad has not yet been located, though one theory puts it under modern Baghdad). Founded by the famed Sargon the Great, Akkad was a powerful military empire.\r\n<h3 id=\"head-of-an-akkadian-ruler\">Head of an Akkadian ruler<\/h3>\r\nThis sculpture of an unidentified Akkadian ruler (some say it is Sargon, but no one knows) is one of the most beautiful and terrifying images in all of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-near-east-cradle-of-civilization\/\">Ancient Near Eastern<\/a>\u00a0art. The life-sized bronze head shows in sharp geometric clarity, locks of hair, curled lips, and a wrinkled brow. Perhaps more awesome than the powerful and somber face of this ruler is the violent attack that mutilated it in antiquity.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1536\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1600\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Sargon_of_Akkad_1936.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1536\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image22.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph showing three views (left profile, back, right profile) of an ancient bronze head sculpture with detailed braided hair and beard. Sculpture features a patterned headband and intricate texture on hair and beard, highlighting craftsmanship and style from Akkadian Empire.\" width=\"1600\" height=\"742\" \/><\/a> Head of an Akkadian ruler, 2250\u20132200 B.C.E., bronze (Source:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sargon_of_Akkad_%281936%29.jpg\">M.E.L. Mallowan<\/a>, This work is in the <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h2 id=\"victory-stele-of-naram-sin\"><em>Victory Stele of Naram-Sin<\/em><\/h2>\r\nNaram-Sin leads his victorious army up a mountain, as vanquished Lullubi people fall before him. This monument depicts the Akkadian victory over the Lullubi Mountain people. In the 12th century B.C.E., a thousand\u00a0years after it was originally made, the Elamite king, Shutruk-Nahhunte, attacked Babylon and, according to his later inscription, the stele was taken to Susa in what is now Iran. A stele is a vertical stone monument or marker often inscribed with text or relief carving.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=OY79AuGZDNI\r\n<h2 id=\"neo-sumerian-ur-iii-period\">Neo-Sumerian, Ur III period<\/h2>\r\nThe kingdom of Akkad ends with internal strife and invasion by the\u00a0Gutians\u00a0from the Zagros mountains to the northeast. The Gutians were ousted in turn and the city of Ur, south of Uruk, became dominant. King Ur-Nammu established the third dynasty of Ur, also referred to as the Ur III period. It is during this period that the great <em>Ziggurat of Ur<\/em> is constructed.\r\n<h2 id=\"ziggurat-of-ur\">Ziggurat of Ur<\/h2>\r\n<h3 id=\"ziggurats\">Ziggurats<\/h3>\r\nA ziggurat is a built raised platform with four sloping sides\u2014like a chopped-off pyramid. Ziggurats are made of mud-bricks\u2014the building material of choice in the Near East, as stone is rare. Ziggurats were not only a visual focal point of the city, they\u00a0were a symbolic one, as well\u2014they were at the heart of the theocratic political system (a theocracy is a type of government where a god is recognized as the ruler, and the state officials operate on the god\u2019s behalf). So, seeing the ziggurat\u00a0towering above the city, one made a\u00a0visual connection to the god or goddess honored there, but also recognized that\u00a0deity\u2019s\u00a0political authority.\r\n\r\nThe Great Ziggurat of Ur has been reconstructed twice, in antiquity and in the 1980s\u2014what\u2019s left of the original?\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1537\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1429\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Ziggarat_of_Ur_001-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1537\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image23.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient ziggurat structure made of mud bricks, featuring a central staircase flanked by vertical grooves on a large rectangular facade. The structure is set against a clear sky with flat, barren ground in the foreground, highlighting its historical and architectural significance.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"623\" \/><\/a> Ziggurat of Ur (largely reconstructed), c. 2100 B.C.E., mud brick and baked brick, Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ziggarat_of_Ur_001.jpg\">Tla2006<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"the-great-ziggurat\">The Great Ziggurat<\/h3>\r\nThe ziggurat is the most distinctive architectural invention of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-near-east-cradle-of-civilization\/\">Ancient Near East<\/a>. Like an Ancient\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-great-pyramids-of-giza\/\">Egyptian pyramid<\/a>, an ancient Near Eastern ziggurat has four sides and rises up to the realm of the gods. However, unlike Egyptian pyramids, the exterior of ziggurats were not smooth but tiered to accommodate the work which took place at the structure, as well as the administrative oversight and religious rituals essential to Ancient Near Eastern cities. Ziggurats are found scattered around what is today Iraq and Iran, and stand as an imposing testament to the power and skill of the ancient culture that produced them.\r\n\r\nOne of the largest and best-preserved ziggurats of Mesopotamia is the Great Ziggurat at Ur. Small excavations occurred at the site around the turn of the twentieth century, and in the 1920s Sir Leonard Woolley, in a joint project with the University of Pennsylvania Museum in Philadelphia and the British Museum in London, revealed the monument in its entirety.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1538\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1024\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/zig01.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1538\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image24.jpeg\" alt=\"Black and white photograph showing a large ancient stepped ziggurat with groups of people standing along its terraces and summit. The barren surrounding landscape and attire of individuals suggest historical or archaeological significance of the site.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"775\" \/><\/a> Leonard Woolley, photo with excavation workers, c. 1923\u201324, featuring the ziggurat of Ur, c. 2100 B.C.E., Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq (photo: Penn Museum, Philadelphia)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nWhat Woolley found was a massive rectangular pyramidal structure, oriented to true north, 210 x 150 feet (64 x 46 meters), constructed with three levels of terraces, standing originally between 70 x 100 feet (21 x 30 meters) high. Three monumental staircases led up to a gate at the first terrace level. Next, a single staircase rose to a second terrace which supported a platform on which a temple and the final and highest terrace stood. The core of the ziggurat is made of mud brick covered with baked bricks laid with bitumen, a naturally occurring tar. Each of the baked bricks measured about 11.5 x 11.5 x 2.75 inches (29 x 29 x 7 cm) and weighed as much as 33 pounds. The lower portion of the ziggurat, which supported the first terrace, would have used some 720,000 baked bricks. The resources needed to build the ziggurat at Ur are staggering.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1539\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1429\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Zig_close-scaled.jpeg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1539\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image25.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient stepped brick ziggurat with two wide staircases leading to the top platform, set against a clear blue sky. The structure features vertical brick patterns on its facade and shows signs of weathering.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"1072\" \/><\/a> Ziggurat of Ur (largely reconstructed), c. 2100 B.C.E., mud brick and baked brick, Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Zig_close.JPG\">Kaufingdude<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"moon-goddess-nanna\">Moon goddess Nanna<\/h3>\r\nThe ziggurat at Ur and the temple on its top were built around 2100 B.C.E. by the king Ur-Nammu of the Third Dynasty of Ur for the moon goddess Nanna, the divine patron of the city state. The structure would have been the highest point in the city by far and, like the spire of a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/amiens\/\">medieval cathedral<\/a>, would have been visible for miles around, a focal point for travelers and the pious alike. As the ziggurat supported the temple of the patron god of the city of Ur, it is likely that it was the place where the citizens of Ur would bring agricultural surplus and where they would go to receive their regular food allotments. In antiquity, to visit the ziggurat at Ur was to seek both spiritual and physical nourishment.\r\n\r\nClearly the most important part of the ziggurat at Ur was the Nanna temple at its top, but this, unfortunately, has not survived. Some blue glazed bricks have been found which archaeologists suspect might have been part of the temple decoration. The lower parts of the ziggurat, which do survive, include amazing details of engineering and design. For instance, because the unbaked mud brick core of the temple would, according to the season, be alternatively more or less damp, the architects included holes through the baked exterior layer of the temple allowing water to evaporate from its core. Additionally, drains were built into the ziggurat\u2019s terraces to carry away the winter rains.\r\n<h3 id=\"husseins-assumption\">Hussein\u2019s assumption<\/h3>\r\nThe ziggurat at Ur has been restored twice. The first restoration was in antiquity. The last\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/neo-babylonian\/\">Neo-Babylonian<\/a>\u00a0king, Nabodinus, apparently replaced the two upper terraces of the structure in the 6th century B.C.E. Some 2,400 years later in the 1980s, Saddam Hussein restored the fa\u00e7ade of the massive lower foundation of the ziggurat, including the three monumental staircases leading up to the gate at the first terrace. Since this most recent restoration, however, the ziggurat at Ur has experienced some damage. During the recent war led by American and coalition forces, Saddam Hussein parked his MiG fighter jets next to the ziggurat, believing that the bombers would spare them for fear of destroying the ancient site. Hussein\u2019s assumptions proved only partially true as the ziggurat sustained some damage from American and coalition bombardment.\r\n<h2 id=\"assyria-an-introduction\">Assyria, an introduction<\/h2>\r\nLed by aggressive warrior kings, Assyria dominated the fertile crescent for half a millennia, amassing vast wealth.\r\n<h3 id=\"a-military-culture\">A military culture<\/h3>\r\nThe Assyrian empire dominated Mesopotamia and all of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-near-east-cradle-of-civilization\/\">Near East<\/a>\u00a0for the first half of the first millennium B.C.E., led by a series of highly ambitious and aggressive warrior kings. Assyrian society was entirely military, with men obliged to fight in the army at any time. State offices were also under the purview of the military.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1540\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1429\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/9454959542_94c3ebe921_o-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1540\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image26.jpeg\" alt=\"Ashurbanipal slitting the throat of a lion from his chariot (detail), Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions stone relief depicting Assyrian warriors in battle, featuring detailed carvings of figures with helmets, weapons, and armor. The relief highlights intricate textures of hair, beards, and clothing, emphasizing a dynamic scene of combat and historical military attire.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"859\" \/><\/a> Ashurbanipal slitting the throat of a lion from his chariot (detail),\u00a0<em>Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions<\/em>, gypsum hall relief from the North Palace, Nineveh, c. 645\u2013635 B.C.E., excavated by H. Rassam beginning in 1853 (British Museum; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/fpv94Q\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIndeed, the culture of the Assyrians was brutal, the army seldom marching on the battlefield but rather terrorizing opponents into submission who, once conquered, were tortured, raped, beheaded, and flayed with their corpses publicly displayed. The Assyrians torched enemies\u2019 houses, salted their fields, and cut down their orchards.\r\n<h3 id=\"luxurious-palaces\">Luxurious palaces<\/h3>\r\nAs a result of these fierce and successful military campaigns, the Assyrians acquired massive resources from all over the Near East which made the Assyrian kings very rich. The palaces were on an entirely new scale of size and glamour; one contemporary text describes the inauguration of the palace of\u00a0Kalhu, built by\u00a0Ashurnasirpal II, to which almost 70,000 people were invited to banquet.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1541\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2048\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/06\/LionHunt.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1541\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image27.jpeg\" alt=\"Lion pierced with arrows (detail), Lion Hunts of Ashurbanipal bas-relief carving depicts a lion pierced by multiple arrows, symbolizing struggle or defeat. Carving features detailed mane texture and muscular limbs, highlighting artistic skill and emotional intensity.\" width=\"2048\" height=\"1227\" \/><\/a> Lion pierced with arrows (detail),\u00a0<em>Lion Hunts of Ashurbanipal\u00a0<\/em>(ruled 669\u2013630 B.C.E.), c. 645 B.C.E., gypsum, Neo-Assyrian, hall reliefs from Palace at Nineveh across the Tigris from present day Mosul, Iraq (British Museum; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/fpfyPr\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nSome of this wealth was spent on the construction of several gigantic and luxurious\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/lamassu-from-the-citadel-of-sargon-ii\/\">palaces<\/a>\u00a0spread throughout the region.\u00a0The interior public reception rooms of Assyrian palaces were lined with large scale carved limestone\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/assyrian-sculpture\/\">reliefs<\/a>\u00a0which offer beautiful and terrifying images of the power and wealth of the Assyrian kings and some of the most beautiful and captivating images in all of ancient Near Eastern art.\r\n<h3 id=\"feats-of-bravery\">Feats of bravery<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1542\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1430\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/9454949668_064a2750e7_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1542\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28.jpeg\" alt=\"Lion Hunts of Ashurbanipal bas-relief carving depicting an ancient battle scene with a chariot drawn by horses on the right and a lion attacking on the left. The artwork features detailed figures of warriors, animals, and weapons, highlighting motion and conflict.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"605\" \/><\/a> <em>Lion Hunts of Ashurbanipal\u00a0<\/em>(ruled 669\u2013630 B.C.E.), c. 645 B.C.E., gypsum, Neo-Assyrian, hall reliefs from Palace at Nineveh across the Tigris from present day Mosul, Iraq (British Museum; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/fpv68A\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nLike all Assyrian kings,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-palace-decoration-of-ashurbanipal\/\">Ashurbanipal<\/a>\u00a0decorated the public walls of his palace with images of himself performing great feats of bravery, strength, and skill. Among these he included a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ashurbanipal-hunting-lions\/\">lion hunt<\/a>\u00a0in which we see him coolly taking aim at a lion in front of his charging chariot, while his assistants fend off another lion attacking at the rear.\r\n<h3 id=\"the-destruction-of-susa\">The destruction of Susa<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1543\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1102\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/47703001442_8b950bf137_3k-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1543\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image29.jpeg\" alt=\"Sacking of Susa by Ashurbanipal bas-relief carving depicting ancient workers constructing a fortified wall with towers, using tools like hammers and chisels. The scene includes multiple figures on top of tall structures and others below, with stylized trees in the foreground.\" width=\"1102\" height=\"1374\" \/><\/a> <em>Sacking of Susa by Ashurbanipal<\/em>, North Palace, Nineveh, 647 B.C.E. (British Museum; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2fFmmo7\">Carole Raddato<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nOne of the accomplishments Ashurbanipal was most proud of was the total destruction of the city of\u00a0Susa. In one relief, we see Ashurbanipal\u2019s troops destroying the walls of\u00a0Susa\u00a0with picks and hammers while fire rages within the walls of the city.\r\n<h3 id=\"military-victories-exploits\">Military victories &amp; exploits<\/h3>\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1544\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1145\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Britishmuseumassyrianreliefarchersnimrud.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1544\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image30.jpeg\" alt=\"The sieging of a city bas-relief stone carving depicting two ancient archers aiming bows, with detailed attire and headgear, standing beside stylized trees. Carving features distinct lines and textures highlighting figures and natural elements.\" width=\"1145\" height=\"1049\" \/><\/a> <em>The sieging of a city<\/em>, Wall relief from Nimrud,\u00a0likely in Mesopotamia, c. 728 B.C.E. (British Museum; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Britishmuseumassyrianreliefarchersnimrud.jpg\">Ealdgyth<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nIn the Central Palace at Nimrud, the Neo-Assyrian king\u00a0Tiglath-pileser III\u00a0illustrates his military victories and exploits, including the siege of a city in great detail. In one scene we see a soldier holding a large screen to protect two archers who are taking aim. The topography includes three different trees and a roaring river, most likely setting the scene in and around the Tigris or Euphrates rivers.\r\n<h2 id=\"ashurbanipal-hunting-lions\">Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions<\/h2>\r\nOnly the king was permitted to kill lions\u2014and doing so signified his power and ability to keep nature at bay.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=J5iEY4hapMQ\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1542\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1430\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/9454949668_064a2750e7_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1542\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28.jpeg\" alt=\"Bas-relief carving depicting an ancient battle scene with a chariot drawn by horses on the right and a lion attacking on the left. The artwork features detailed figures of warriors, animals, and weapons, showcasing motion and conflict. \" width=\"1430\" height=\"605\" \/><\/a> <em>Lion Hunts of Ashurbanipal<\/em> (ruled 669-630 B.C.E.), c. 645 B.C.E., gypsum, Neo-Assyrian, hall reliefs from Palace at Ninevah across the Tigris from present day Mosul, Iraq; excavated by H. Rassam beginning in 1853 (British Museum, photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/fpv68A\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\"><header class=\"textbox__header\">\r\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\r\n<\/header>\r\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\r\n\r\nThe artists who created <em>Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions<\/em> used long-standing Ancient Mesopotamian visual arts techniques, particularly the register to convey a narrative about power and authority. However, unlike the Sumerian <em>Standard of Ur<\/em> with its <strong>composite view<\/strong> of the king and use of <strong>hierarchy of scale<\/strong>, Assyrian artists used a <strong>profile view<\/strong> and showed the king in <strong>proportion<\/strong> with other figures and forms. Carved in low relief, <strong>contour lines<\/strong> create the shapes of the <strong>figurative forms<\/strong> of people, animals, and objects like chariots. The <strong>pictorial space<\/strong> is shallow yet shows depth with <strong>overlapping<\/strong> figures. Assyrian artists used many <strong>patterns<\/strong> to indicate hair and luxurious details on clothing while<strong> lines<\/strong> within the figures define the muscular structure on both people and animals. Interestingly, although the display of emotion is mostly absent in the art of the ancient world, Assyrian artists frequently showed animals in agony.\r\n\r\n<\/div>\r\n<\/div>\r\n<h2 id=\"the-ishtar-gate-and-neo-babylonian-art-and-architecture\">The Ishtar Gate and Neo-Babylonian art and architecture<\/h2>\r\n\u201cI, Nebuchadnezzar . . . magnificently adorned them with luxurious splendor for all mankind to behold in awe.\u201d Nebuchadnezzar II, Inscription plaque of the Ishtar Gate\r\n\r\nThe chronology of Mesopotamia is complicated. Scholars refer to places (<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/sumerian-art-an-introduction\/\">Sumer<\/a>, for example) and peoples (the Babylonians), but also empires (<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/babylonia-an-introduction\/\">Babylonia<\/a>), and unfortunately for students of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-near-east-cradle-of-civilization\/\">Ancient Near East<\/a>, these organizing principles do not always agree. The result is that we might, for example, speak of the very Ancient Babylonians starting in the 1800s B.C.E. and then also the Neo-Babylonians more than a thousand years later. What came in between you ask? Well, quite a lot, but mostly the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/kassite-art-unfinished-kudurru\/\">Kassites<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/assyrian-art-an-introduction\/\">Assyrians<\/a>.\r\n\r\nThe Assyrian Empire which had dominated the Near East came to an end at around 600 B.C.E. due to a number of factors including military pressure by the Medes (a pastoral mountain people, again from the Zagros mountain range), the Babylonians, and possibly also civil war.\r\n<h3 id=\"a-neo-babylonian-dynasty\">A Neo-Babylonian dynasty<\/h3>\r\nThe Babylonians rose to power in the late 7th century and were heirs to the urban traditions which had long existed in southern Mesopotamia. They eventually ruled an empire as dominant in the Near East as that held by the Assyrians before them.\r\n\r\nThis period is called Neo-Babylonian (or new Babylonia) because\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/visiting-babylon\/\">Babylon<\/a>\u00a0had also risen to power earlier and became an independent city-state, most famously during the reign of\u00a0King Hammurabi.\r\n\r\nIn the art of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, we see an effort to invoke the styles and iconography of the 3rd-millennium rulers of Babylonia. In fact, one Neo-Babylonian king,\u00a0Nabonidus, found a statue of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/art-of-akkad-an-introduction\/\">Sargon of Akkad<\/a>, set it in a temple and provided it with regular offerings.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1545\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1429\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/22712995938_7d6e6fde12_o-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1545\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image31.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of the Ishtar Gate, an ancient Mesopotamian structure featuring deep blue glazed bricks decorated with golden animal reliefs, including lions, bulls, and dragons. The gate's large arched entrance and crenellated top are visible, with visitors providing scale inside a museum setting.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"1089\" \/><\/a> Ishtar Gate and Processional Way (Reconstruction), Babylon, c. 575 B.C.E., glazed mud brick (Pergamon Museum, Berlin; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/AB53of\">Steven Zucker<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"architecture\">Architecture<\/h3>\r\nThe Neo-Babylonians are most famous for their architecture, notably at their capital city, Babylon.\u00a0Nebuchadnezzar II\u00a0largely rebuilt this ancient city including its walls and seven gates. It is also during this era that Nebuchadnezzar II purportedly built the \u201cHanging Gardens of Babylon\u201d for his wife because she missed the gardens of her homeland in Media (modern day Iran). Though mentioned by ancient Greek and Roman writers, the \u201cHanging Gardens\u201d may, in fact, be legendary.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1546\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"1429\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/23142958231_180dd3c505_o-scaled.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1546\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image32.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Detail, Ishtar Gate and Processional Way brick relief depicting a lion walking to the right, set against a blue and green background with floral patterns above and below. The relief features detailed carving and color accents in orange, white, and black, highlighting the lion's mane and body structure.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"1045\" \/><\/a> Detail, Ishtar Gate and Processional Way (Reconstruction), Babylon, c. 575 B.C.E., glazed mud brick (Pergamon Museum, Berlin; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/Bg4Hce\">Steven Zucker<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Ishtar Gate (today in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin) was the most elaborate of the inner city gates constructed in Babylon in antiquity. The whole gate was covered in glazed bricks which the inscription tells us are made of\u00a0lapis lazuli\u00a0which would have rendered the fa\u00e7ade with a jewel-like shine. Alternating rows of lion and cattle march in a relief procession across the gleaming blue surface of the gate.\r\n\r\nhttps:\/\/www.youtube.com\/watch?v=U2iZ83oIZH0\r\n<h2 id=\"ancient-persia-an-introduction\">Ancient Persia, an introduction<\/h2>\r\nThe heart of Ancient Persia is in what is now southwest Iran, in the region called the Fars. In the second half of the 6th century B.C.E., the Persians (also called the\u00a0Achaemenids) created an enormous empire reaching from the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/indus-valley-terracotta-human-figurines\/\">Indus Valley<\/a>\u00a0to Northern Greece and from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/history-asia\/#:~:text=or%20Asian%20countries.-,Central%20and%20North%20Asia,-%2C%20comprising%20territories%20bordered\">Central Asia<\/a>\u00a0to\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-egypt-an-introduction\/#:~:text=Ancient%20Egypt%20map%20(underlying%20map%20%C2%A9%20Google)\">Egypt<\/a>. Under Cyrus the Great, the Achaemenids conquered Neo-Babylonia and the region of Mesopotamia.\r\n<h3 id=\"overview-of-the-achaemenid-empire\">Overview of the Achaemenid Empire<\/h3>\r\nThe Achaemenid Empire (First Persian Empire) was an imperial state of Western Asia founded by Cyrus the Great and flourishing from c. 550\u2013330 B.C.E. The empire\u2019s territory was vast, stretching from the Balkan peninsula in the west to the Indus River valley in the east. The Achaemenid Empire is notable for its strong, centralized bureaucracy that had, at its head, a king and relied upon regional satraps (regional governors).\r\n\r\nA number of formerly independent states were made subject to the Persian Empire. These states covered a vast territory from central Asia and Afghanistan in the east to Asia Minor, Egypt, Libya, and Macedonia in the west. The Persians famously attempted to expand their empire further to include mainland Greece but they were ultimately defeated in this attempt. The Persian kings are noted for their penchant for monumental art and architecture. In creating monumental centers, including Persepolis, the Persian kings employed art and architecture to craft messages that helped to reinforce their claims to power and depict, iconographically, Persian rule.\r\n<h3 id=\"a-tolerant-empire\">A tolerant empire<\/h3>\r\nAlthough the surviving literary sources on the Persian empire were written by\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-greece-an-introduction\/\">ancient Greeks<\/a>\u00a0who were the sworn enemies of the Persians and highly contemptuous of them, the Persians were, in fact quite tolerant and ruled a multi-ethnic empire. Persia was the first empire known to have acknowledged the different faiths, languages, and political organizations of its subjects.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1547\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"946\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1547\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image33.png\" alt=\"Map showing Persian Empire boundaries in 490 B.C., highlighting regions, cities, and surrounding bodies of water. Red solid line marks empire limits, while dashed blue line traces route of Xerxes and 10,000 troops, with key locations labeled and seas colored blue.\" width=\"946\" height=\"682\" \/> The Persian Empire, 490 B.C.E.[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThis tolerance for the cultures under Persian control carried over into administration. In the lands which they conquered, the Persians continued to use indigenous languages and administrative structures. For example, the Persians accepted\u00a0hieroglyphic script\u00a0written on papyrus in Egypt and traditional\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/babylonia-an-introduction\/\">Babylonian<\/a>\u00a0record keeping in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/cuneiform\/\">cuneiform<\/a>\u00a0in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/tiny-timeline-ancient-egypt-and-mesopotamia-in-a-global-context-5th-3rd-millennia-bce\/\">Mesopotamia<\/a>. The Persians must have been very proud of this new approach to empire, as can be seen in the representation of the many different peoples in the reliefs from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/persepolis-the-audience-hall-of-darius-and-xerxes\/\">Persepolis<\/a>, a city founded by\u00a0Darius the Great\u00a0in the 6th century B.C.E.\r\n\r\nBy the early fifth century B.C.E. the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/persian-art-an-introduction\/\">Achaemenid (Persian) Empire<\/a>\u00a0ruled an estimated 44% of the human population of planet Earth. Through regional administrators the Persian kings controlled a vast territory which they constantly sought to expand. Famous for monumental architecture, Persian kings established numerous monumental centers, among those is Persepolis (today, in Iran). The great audience hall of the Persian kings Darius and Xerxes presents a visual microcosm of the Achaemenid empire\u2014making clear, through sculptural decoration, that the Persian king ruled over all of the subjugated ambassadors and vassals (who are shown bringing tribute in an endless eternal procession).\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1548\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/Kylix.jpeg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1548\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image34.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Greek black-figure kylix, a type of drinking cup, featuring a central circular design with two warriors in combat. The artwork includes detailed armor, helmets, and a shield with a pegasus emblem, framed by a decorative geometric border.\" width=\"870\" height=\"747\" \/><\/a> Kylix depicting a Greek hoplite slaying a Persian inside, by the Triptolemos painter, 5th century B.C.E. (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nms.ac.uk\/explore-our-collections\/collection-search-results\/kylix\/408385\">National Museums of Scotland<\/a>, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Greek-Persian_duel.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"overview-of-persepolis\">Overview of Persepolis<\/h3>\r\nPersepolis, the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Persian empire, lies some 60 km northeast of Shiraz, Iran. The earliest archaeological remains of the city date to c. 515 B.C.E. Persepolis, a Greek toponym meaning \u201ccity of the Persians\u201d, was known to the Persians as P\u0101rsa and was an important city of the ancient world, renowned for its monumental art and architecture. The site was excavated by German archaeologists Ernst Herzfeld, Friedrich Krefter, and Erich Schmidt between 1931 and 1939. Its remains are striking even today, leading UNESCO to register the site as a World Heritage Site in 1979.\r\n\r\nPersepolis was intentionally founded in the Marvda\u0161t Plain during the later part of the sixth century B.C.E. It was marked as a special site by\u00a0Darius the Great\u00a0in 518 B.C.E. when he indicated the location of a \u201cRoyal Hill\u201d that would serve as a ceremonial center and citadel for the city. This was an action on Darius\u2019 part that was similar to the earlier king Cyrus the Great who had founded the city of Pasargadae. Darius the Great directed a massive building program at Persepolis that would continue under his successors\u00a0Xerxes\u00a0and\u00a0Artaxerxes I. Persepolis would remain an important site until it was sacked, looted, and burned under Alexander the Great of Macedon in 330 B.C.E.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1549\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/PersepolisPlanNew.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1549\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image35.jpeg\" alt=\"Architectural floor plan of Persepolis complex with color-coded sections representing Apadana (red), Throne Hall (orange), Treasury (blue), Palace of Darius (yellow), Council Hall (green), Artaxerxes Tomb (purple), Palace of Xerxes (light purple), Harem of Xerxes (pink), and Gate of Xerxes (dark blue). The plan includes detailed room layouts, connecting corridors, and a scale bar for spatial reference.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1044\" \/><\/a> Plan of Persepolis (underlying image:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/artsandculture.google.com\/asset\/persepolis-plan\/GQGGApNu5MEvzA\">Oriental Institute Museum via Google Arts and Culture<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nDarius\u2019 program at Persepolis including the building of a massive terraced platform covering 125,000 square meters of the promontory. This platform supported four groups of structures: residential quarters, a treasury, ceremonial palaces, and fortifications. Scholars continue to debate the purpose and nature of the site. Primary sources indicate that Darius saw himself building an important stronghold. Some scholars suggest that the site has a sacred connection to the god Mithra (Mehr), as well as links to the Nowruz, the Persian New Year\u2019s festival. More general readings see Persepolis as an important administrative and economic center of the Persian empire.\r\n<h2 id=\"persepolis-the-audience-hall-of-darius-and-xerxes\">Persepolis: The Audience Hall of Darius and Xerxes<\/h2>\r\n<h3 id=\"the-ap\u0101dana\">The Ap\u0101dana<\/h3>\r\nPersepolis included a massive columned hall used for receptions by the Kings, called the\u00a0Ap\u0101dana. This hall contained 72 columns and two monumental stairways.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1550\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"268\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1550\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image36.png\" alt=\"A detailed illustration of an ancient Persian palace featuring tall, ornate columns with intricate capitals and a raised platform accessed by stairs. The scene includes small human figures near the structure, emphasizing the grand scale and architectural complexity of the building.\" width=\"268\" height=\"398\" \/> 19th century reconstruction of the Ap\u0101dana, Persepolis (Fars, Iran) by Charles Chipiez (Source: <a href=\"19th%20century%20reconstruction%20of%20the%20Ap\u0101dana,%20Persepolis%20(Fars,%20Iran)%20by%20Charles%20Chipiez\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe Ap\u0101dana palace is a large ceremonial building, likely an audience hall with an associated portico. The audience hall itself is hypostyle in its plan, meaning that the roof of the structure is supported by columns. Ap\u0101dana is the Persian term equivalent to the Greek hypostyle (Ancient Greek: \u1f51\u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03c4\u03c5\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 hyp\u00f3st\u0233los). The footprint of the Ap\u0101dana is c. 1,000 square meters; originally 72 columns, each standing to a height of 24 meters, supported the roof (only 14 columns remain standing today). The column capitals assumed the form of either\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/capital-of-a-column-from-the-audience-hall-of-the-palace-of-darius-i-susa\/\">twin-headed bulls<\/a>\u00a0(above), eagles or lions, all animals represented royal authority and kingship.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1551\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/20388181404_69af0513cf_k.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1551\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image37.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a Bull Capital from Persepolis sculpture featuring two symmetrical bull heads facing opposite directions, mounted on a decorated column. The sculpture showcases intricate carvings on the bulls' bodies and the column base, highlighting ancient artistic craftsmanship and cultural symbolism.\" width=\"870\" height=\"580\" \/><\/a> Bull Capital from Persepolis, Ap\u0101dana, Persepolis (Fars, Iran), c. 520\u2013465 B.C.E. (National Museum of Iran; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/x4CL23\">s1ingshot<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a>[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe king of the Achaemenid Persian empire is presumed to have received guests and tribute in this soaring, imposing space. To that end a sculptural program decorates monumental stairways on the north and east. The theme of that program is one that pays tribute to the Persian king himself as it depicts representatives of 23 subject nations bearing gifts to the king.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1552\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"870\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-32-18.jpg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1552\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image38.jpeg\" alt=\"Assyrians with Rams bringing tribute to the Persian king bas-relief carving depicting three men leading two rams, with detailed patterns on animals and figures, set against a floral border and a tree on the left. This ancient stone artwork emphasizes intricate textures on hair, clothing, and animal fur.\" width=\"870\" height=\"653\" \/><\/a> Assyrians with Rams bringing tribute to the Persian king, relief from Ap\u0101dana, Persepolis (Fars, Iran), c. 520\u2013465 B.C.E. (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-32-18.jpg\">Simisa<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe walls of the spaces and stairs leading up to the reception hall were carved with hundreds of figures, several of which illustrated subject peoples of various ethnicities, bringing tribute to the Persian king.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1553\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"2482\"]<img class=\"size-full wp-image-1553\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image39.png\" alt=\"Black and white photograph of View of the eastern stairway and columns of the Ap\u0101dana, Persepolis featuring tall, intricately carved stone columns arranged in a row with detailed bas-reliefs on surrounding walls. The scene captures a wide, open archaeological site under a partly cloudy sky.\" width=\"2482\" height=\"1774\" \/> View of the eastern stairway and columns of the Ap\u0101dana, Persepolis (Fars, Iran), c. 520\u2013465 B.C.E. (<a href=\"https:\/\/news.uchicago.edu\/story\/exhibit-features-archival-images-persepolis-royal-complex-ancient-persia\">The Oriental Institute, University of Chicago<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n<h3 id=\"the-ap\u0101dana-stairs-and-sculptural-program\">The Ap\u0101dana stairs and sculptural program<\/h3>\r\nThe monumental stairways that approach the Ap\u0101dana from the north and the east were adorned with registers of relief sculpture that depicted representatives of the twenty-three subject nations of the Persian empire bringing valuable gifts as tribute to the king. The sculptures form a processional scene, leading some scholars to conclude that the reliefs capture the scene of actual, annual tribute processions\u2014perhaps on the occasion of the Persian New Year\u2013that took place at Persepolis. The relief program of the northern stairway was perhaps completed c. 500\u2013490 B.C.E. The two sets of stairway reliefs mirror and complement each other. Each program has a central scene of the enthroned king flanked by his attendants and guards.\r\n\r\nNoblemen wearing elite outfits and military apparel are also present. The representatives of the twenty-three nations, each led by an attendant, bring tribute while dressed in costumes suggestive of their land of origin. Margaret Root interprets the central scenes of the enthroned king as the focal point of the overall composition, perhaps even reflecting events that took place within the Ap\u0101dana itself.\r\n\r\n[caption id=\"attachment_1554\" align=\"alignnone\" width=\"500\"]<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/PersepolisRelief.jpeg\"><img class=\"size-full wp-image-1554\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image40.jpeg\" alt=\"An Armenian tribute bearer carrying a metal vessel with Homa (griffin) handles bas-relief sculpture depicting a bearded man wearing a hat, holding a large, ornate vessel with animal-shaped handles.\" width=\"500\" height=\"501\" \/><\/a> An Armenian tribute bearer carrying a metal vessel with Homa (griffin) handles, relief from the eastern stairs of the Ap\u0101dana in Persepolis (Fars, Iran), c. 520\u2013465 B.C.E. (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Hay_pers.jpg\">Aryamahasattva<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY SA 3.0<\/a>)[\/caption]\r\n\r\nThe relief program of the Ap\u0101dana serves to reinforce and underscore the power of the Persian king and the breadth of his dominion. The motif of subjugated peoples contributing their wealth to the empire\u2019s central authority serves to visually cement this political dominance. These processional scenes may have exerted influence beyond the Persian sphere, as some scholars have discussed the possibility that Persian relief sculpture from Persepolis may have influenced Athenian sculptors of the fifth century B.C.E. who were tasked with creating the Ionic frieze of the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-parthenon-athens\/\">Parthenon<\/a>\u00a0in Athens. In any case, the Ap\u0101dana, both as a building and as an ideological tableau, make clear and strong statements about the authority of the Persian king and present a visually unified idea of the immense Achaemenid empire.\r\n<h3 id=\"conquered-by-alexander-the-great\">Conquered by Alexander the Great<\/h3>\r\nThe Persian Empire was, famously,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/alexander-mosaic-from-the-house-of-the-faun-pompeii\/\">conquered by Alexander the Great<\/a>. Alexander no doubt was impressed by the Persian system of absorbing and retaining local language and traditions as he imitated this system himself in the vast lands he won in battle. Indeed, Alexander made a point of burying the last Persian emperor, Darius III, in a lavish and respectful way in the royal tombs near Persepolis. This enabled Alexander to claim title to the Persian throne and legitimize his control over the greatest empire of the\u00a0Ancient Near East.\r\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-1\">Conclusion<\/h2>\r\nAncient Mesopotamian history spans a vast timeline across several different civilizations of the Ancient Near East. From the Sumerians and their city-centers like Ur to the Persian Empire anchored in Persepolis, the various civilizations created artworks that were expressive of cultural ideas related to religion, politics, and power.\r\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-1\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\r\nThe following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and are licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Conclusion<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>\r\nThe following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:\r\n<ul>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Senta German, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/sumerian-art-an-introduction\/\">Sumer, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, June 8, 2018.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Senta German, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/standard-of-ur-2\/\"><em>Standard of Ur<\/em>\u00a0and other objects from the Royal Graves<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, July 26, 2023.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Senta German, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/art-of-akkad-an-introduction\/\">Akkad, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, June 8, 2018.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/victory-stele-of-naram-sin\/\"><em>Victory Stele of Naram-Sin<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, November 24, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Senta German, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ziggurat-of-ur\/\">Ziggurat of Ur<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Senta German, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/white-temple-and-ziggurat-uruk\/\">White Temple and ziggurat, Uruk<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Senta German, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/assyrian-art-an-introduction\/\">Assyria, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, May 14, 2019.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ashurbanipal-hunting-lions\/\"><em>Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions<\/em><\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 11, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Senta German, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/neo-babylonian\/\">The Ishtar Gate and Neo-Babylonian art and architecture<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Senta German, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/persian-art-an-introduction\/\">Ancient Persia, an introduction<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, June 8, 2018.<\/li>\r\n \t<li>Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker, \"<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/persepolis-the-audience-hall-of-darius-and-xerxes\/\">Persepolis: The Audience Hall of Darius and Xerxes<\/a>,\" in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, January 24, 2016.<\/li>\r\n<\/ul>","rendered":"<h2 id=\"chapter-overview-and-introduction-1\">Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/h2>\n<p>The earliest civilization on the planet was the Ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia is called the \u201cland between two rivers,\u201d referring to the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. The Ancient Sumerians in the region of present-day Iraq introduced many foundational aspects of civilization, including farming, the wheel, and writing. They also established artistic conventions still in use today, such as registers and hierarchy of scale. The content on Ancient Mesopotamia spans several periods. Unlike its neighboring civilization of Egypt, Mesopotamia consisted of a series of successive ruling civilizations: Sumerians, Akkadians, Neo-Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Neo-Babylonians, and more. The chapter highlights several of these civilizations and closes with an introduction to the Achaemenid Empire of Ancient Persia, which conquered the lands of Ancient Mesopotamia.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"focus-artworks-1\">Focus Artworks<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li><em>The Standard of Ur<\/em>, 2600\u20132400 B.C.E., shell, limestone, lapis lazuli, and bitumen, Sumerian<\/li>\n<li><em>Stele of Naram-sin<\/em>, c. 2254-2218 B.C.E., pink sandstone, Akkadian<\/li>\n<li><em>Ziggurat of Ur<\/em>, c. 2100 B.C.E., mud brick and baked brick, Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq, Neo-Sumerian<\/li>\n<li><em>Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions<\/em>, gypsum hall relief from the North Palace, Ninevah, c. 645-635 B.C.E., Assyrian<\/li>\n<li><em>Ishtar Gate and Processional Way<\/em> (Reconstruction), Babylon, c. 575 B.C.E., glazed mud brick, Neo-Babylonian<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h3 id=\"term-list-1\">Term List<\/h3>\n<ul>\n<li>Mesopotamia<\/li>\n<li>Tigris and Euphrates<\/li>\n<li>Sumer<\/li>\n<li>City-state<\/li>\n<li>Theocracy<\/li>\n<li>Cuneiform<\/li>\n<li>Registers<\/li>\n<li>Hierarchy of scale<\/li>\n<li>Akkad<\/li>\n<li>Stela<\/li>\n<li>Ziggurat<\/li>\n<li>Assyria<\/li>\n<li>Low relief carving<\/li>\n<li>Neo-Babylonia<\/li>\n<li>Achaemenids (Persia)<\/li>\n<li>Ap\u0101dana<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<h2 id=\"sumer-an-introduction\">Sumer, an introduction<\/h2>\n<p>Sumer was home to some of the oldest known cities, supported by a focus on agriculture. The region of southern\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-near-east-cradle-of-civilization\/\">Mesopotamia<\/a>\u00a0is known as Sumer, and it is in Sumer that we find some of the oldest known cities, including Ur and Uruk.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"uruk\">Uruk<\/h3>\n<p>Prehistory ends with Uruk, where we find some of the earliest written records. This large city-state (and it environs) was largely dedicated to agriculture and eventually dominated southern Mesopotamia. Uruk perfected Mesopotamian irrigation and administration systems.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"an-agricultural-theocracy\">An agricultural theocracy<\/h3>\n<p>Within the city of Uruk, there was a large temple complex dedicated to Innana, the patron goddess of the city. The City-State\u2019s agricultural production would be \u201cgiven\u201d to her and stored at her temple. Harvested crops would then be processed (grain ground into flour, barley fermented into beer) and given back to the citizens of Uruk in equal share at regular intervals.<\/p>\n<p>The head of the temple administration, the chief priest of Innana, also served as political leader, making Uruk the first known theocracy.\u00a0We know many details about this theocratic administration because the Sumerians left numerous documents in the form of tablets written in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/cuneiform\/\">cuneiform<\/a>\u00a0script.<\/p>\n<p>It is almost impossible to imagine a time before writing. However, you might be disappointed to learn that writing was not invented to record stories, poetry, or prayers to a god. The first fully developed written script, cuneiform, was invented to account for something unglamorous, but very important\u2014surplus commodities: bushels of barley, head of cattle, and jars of oil!<\/p>\n<p>The origin of written language (c. 3200 B.C.E.) was born out of economic necessity and was a tool of the theocratic (priestly) ruling elite who needed to keep track of the agricultural wealth of the city-states. The last known document written in the cuneiform script dates to the first century C.E. Only the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/multilingualism-egypt-nile\/\">hieroglyphic script<\/a>\u00a0of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-egypt-an-introduction\/\">Ancient Egyptians<\/a>\u00a0lasted longer.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"a-reed-and-clay-tablet\">A reed and clay tablet<\/h3>\n<p>A single reed, cleanly cut from the banks of the Euphrates or Tigris river, when pressed cut-edge down into a soft clay tablet, will make a wedge shape. The arrangement of multiple wedge shapes (as few as two and as many as ten) created cuneiform characters. Characters could be written either horizontally or vertically, although a horizontal arrangement was more widely used.<\/p>\n<p>Very few cuneiform signs have only one meaning; most have as many as four. Cuneiform signs could represent a whole word or an idea or a number. Most frequently though, they represented a syllable. A cuneiform syllable could be a vowel alone, a consonant plus a vowel, a vowel plus a consonant and even a consonant plus a vowel plus a consonant. There isn\u2019t a sound that a human mouth can make that this script can\u2019t record.<\/p>\n<p>Probably because of this extraordinary flexibility, the range of languages that were written with cuneiform across history of the Ancient Near East is vast and includes Sumerian,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/art-of-akkad-an-introduction\/\">Akkadian<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/amorites-an-introduction\/\">Amorite<\/a>, Hurrian, Urartian,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/hittites-introduction\/\">Hittite<\/a>, Luwian, Palaic, Hatian, and Elamite.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"standard-of-ur-and-other-objects-from-the-royal-graves\"><em>Standard of Ur<\/em>\u00a0and other objects from the Royal Graves<\/h2>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-1\" title=\"War and peace on the Standard of Ur\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/JWl6eolbQ2g?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1532\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1532\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/50810775067_6e072e3c31_o.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1532\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image18.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient trapezoidal artifact decorated with three horizontal registers of detailed human and animal figures in relief. The artifact features vibrant blue and gold colors, depicting scenes of daily life and ceremonial events, with additional smaller animal motifs on the side panels.\" width=\"870\" height=\"621\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image18.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image18-300x214.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image18-768x548.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image18-65x46.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image18-225x161.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image18-350x250.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1532\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>The<\/em> <em>Standard of Ur<\/em>, 2600\u20132400 B.C.E., shell, limestone, lapis lazuli, and bitumen, 21.59 x 49.53 x 12 cm (\u00a9 The Trustees of the British Museum, London; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2kpYvcZ\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"the-violence-and-grandeur-of-sumerian-kingship\">The violence and grandeur of Sumerian kingship<\/h3>\n<p>The\u00a0<em>Standard of Ur<\/em>\u00a0is a fascinating rectangular box-like object which, through intricate mosaic scenes, presents the violence and grandeur of Sumerian kingship. It is made up of two long flat panels of wood (and two short sides) and is covered with bitumen (a naturally occurring petroleum substance, essentially tar) in which small pieces of carved shell, red limestone, and lapis lazuli were set. It is thought to be a military standard, something common in battle for thousands of years: a readily visible object held high on a pole in the midst of the combat and paraded in victory to symbolize the army (or individual divisions of the army) of a war lord or general. Although we don\u2019t know if this object ever saw the melee of battle, it certainly witnessed a grisly scene when it was deposited in one of the royal graves at the site of Ur in the mid-3rd millennium B.C.E.<\/p>\n<p>In the 1920s the British archaeologist Sir Leonard Woolley worked extensively at Ur and in 1926 he uncovered a huge cemetery of nearly 2,000 burials spread over an area of 70 x 55 m (230 x 180 ft). Most graves were modest, however a group of sixteen were identified by Woolley as royal tombs because of their wealthier grave goods and treatment at interment.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1533\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1533\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2023\/07\/woolley.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1533\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image19.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Ur Excavations, volume II, The Royal Cemetery, Plates (British Museum, London and The University Museum, Philadelphia, 1934), plate 8 (available via the Internet Archive)\" width=\"870\" height=\"730\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image19.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image19-300x252.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image19-768x644.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image19-65x55.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image19-225x189.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image19-350x294.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1533\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Sir Leonard Woolley,\u00a0Ur Excavations, volume II, The Royal Cemetery, Plates (British Museum, London and The University Museum, Philadelphia, 1934), plate 8 (available via the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/ur-excavations-ii.-the-royal-cemetery-plates\/page\/8\/mode\/2up?q=779&amp;view=theater\">Internet Archive<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Each of these tombs contained a chamber of limestone rubble with a vaulted roof of mud bricks. The main burial of the tomb was placed in this chamber and surrounded by treasure (offerings of copper, gold, silver and jewelry of lapis lazuli, carnelian, agate, and shell). The main burial was also accompanied by several other bodies in the tomb, a mass grave outside the chamber, often called the\u00a0Death Pit. We assume that all these individuals were sacrificed at the time of the main burial in a horrific scene of deference.<\/p>\n<p>One of the royal graves (PG779) had four chambers but no death pit. It had been plundered in antiquity but one room was largely untouched and had the remains of at least four individuals. In the corner of this room the remains of the\u00a0<em>Standard of Ur<\/em>\u00a0were found. One of its long sides was found lying face down in the soil with the other one face up, which lead Woolley to conclude that it was a hollow structure; additional inlay were found on either side of the short ends and appeared to fill a triangular shape and which lead to the\u00a0<em>Standard<\/em>\u00a0being reconstructed with its sloping sides. The remains of the\u00a0<em>Standard<\/em>\u00a0were found above the right shoulder of a man whom Woolley thought had carried it attached to a pole. The identification of this object as a military standard is by no means secure; the hollow shape could just as easily have been the sound box of a stringed instrument, such as the Queen\u2019s Lyre found in an adjacent tomb.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"war-and-peace\">War and peace<\/h3>\n<p>The two sides of the\u00a0<em>Standard<\/em>\u00a0appear to be the two poles of Sumerian kingship, war and peace.\u00a0 The war side was found face up and is divided into three registers (bands), read from the bottom up, left to right. The story begins at the bottom with war carts, each with a spearman and driver, drawn by donkeys trampling fallen enemies, distinguished by their nudity and wounds, which drip with blood. The middle band shows a group of soldiers wearing fur cloaks and carrying spears walking to the right while bound, naked enemies are executed and paraded to the top band where more are killed.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1534\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1534\" style=\"width: 1377px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/StandardOfUrWar.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1534\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image20.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of the War (detail) on Standard of Ur, an ancient Sumerian artifact featuring detailed inlaid mosaic panels depicting scenes of war and peace. The rectangular box shows three horizontal registers with figures of soldiers, chariots, animals, and attendants, highlighted by blue lapis lazuli background and intricate ivory and shell inlays.\" width=\"1377\" height=\"643\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image20.jpeg 1377w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image20-300x140.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image20-1024x478.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image20-768x359.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image20-65x30.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image20-225x105.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image20-350x163.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1377px) 100vw, 1377px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1534\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">War (detail),\u00a0<em>The Standard of Ur<\/em>, 2600\u20132400 B.C.E., shell, red limestone, lapis lazuli, and bitumen (original wood no longer exists), 21.59 x 49.53 x 12 cm (\u00a9 The Trustees of the British Museum, London; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2kpU7s9\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In the center of the top register, we find the king, holding a long spear, physically larger than everyone else, so much so, his head breaks the frame of the scene. Behind him are attendants carrying spears and battle axes and his royal war cart ready for him to jump in. There is a sense of a triumphal moment on the battlefield, when the enemy is vanquished and the victorious king is relishing his win. There is no reason to believe that this is a particular battle or king as there is nothing which identifies it as such; we think it is more of a generic image of a critically important aspect of\u00a0Ancient Near Eastern\u00a0kingship.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1535\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1535\" style=\"width: 1374px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/01\/StandardOfUrPeace-1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1535\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image21.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Peace (detail), The Standard of Ur depicting a detailed narrative scene with multiple human and animal figures arranged in three horizontal registers. The artifact features intricate inlays of blue, white, and brown colors, highlighting various activities such as seated figures and standing individuals, showcasing cultural and ceremonial aspects.\" width=\"1374\" height=\"666\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image21.jpeg 1374w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image21-300x145.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image21-1024x496.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image21-768x372.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image21-65x32.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image21-225x109.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image21-350x170.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1374px) 100vw, 1374px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1535\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Peace (detail),\u00a0<em>The Standard of Ur,<\/em> 2600\u20132400 B.C.E., shell, red limestone, lapis lazuli, and bitumen (original wood no longer exists), 21.59 x 49.53 x 12 cm (\u00a9 The Trustees of the British Museum; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2kpU7HK\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The opposite peace panel also illustrates a cumulative moment, that of the celebration of the king, this time for great agricultural abundance which is afforded by peace. Again, beginning at the bottom left, we see men carrying produce on their shoulders and in bags and leading donkeys. In the central band, men lead bulls, sheep and goats, and carry fish. In the top register a grand feast is taking place, complete with comfortable seating and musical accompaniment.<\/p>\n<p>On the left, the largest figure, the king, is seated wearing a richly flounce fur skirt, again so large, even seated, he breaks the frame. Was it an epic tale of battle that the singer on the far right is performing for entertainment as he plays a bull\u2019s head lyre, again, like the Queen\u2019s Lyre? We will never know but certainly such powerful images of Sumerian kingship tell us that whomever ended his life with the\u00a0<em>Standard of Ur<\/em>\u00a0on his shoulder was willing to give his life in a ritual of kingly burial.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"akkad-an-introduction\">Akkad, an introduction<\/h2>\n<p>Competition between Akkad in the north and Ur in the south created two centralized regional powers at the end of the third millennium. This centralization was military in nature and the art of this period generally became more martial. The Akkadian Empire was begun by Sargon, a man from a lowly family who rose to power and founded the royal city of Akkad (Akkad has not yet been located, though one theory puts it under modern Baghdad). Founded by the famed Sargon the Great, Akkad was a powerful military empire.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"head-of-an-akkadian-ruler\">Head of an Akkadian ruler<\/h3>\n<p>This sculpture of an unidentified Akkadian ruler (some say it is Sargon, but no one knows) is one of the most beautiful and terrifying images in all of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-near-east-cradle-of-civilization\/\">Ancient Near Eastern<\/a>\u00a0art. The life-sized bronze head shows in sharp geometric clarity, locks of hair, curled lips, and a wrinkled brow. Perhaps more awesome than the powerful and somber face of this ruler is the violent attack that mutilated it in antiquity.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1536\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1536\" style=\"width: 1600px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Sargon_of_Akkad_1936.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1536\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image22.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph showing three views (left profile, back, right profile) of an ancient bronze head sculpture with detailed braided hair and beard. Sculpture features a patterned headband and intricate texture on hair and beard, highlighting craftsmanship and style from Akkadian Empire.\" width=\"1600\" height=\"742\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image22.jpeg 1600w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image22-300x139.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image22-1024x475.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image22-768x356.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image22-1536x712.jpeg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image22-65x30.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image22-225x104.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image22-350x162.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1600px) 100vw, 1600px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1536\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Head of an Akkadian ruler, 2250\u20132200 B.C.E., bronze (Source:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Sargon_of_Akkad_%281936%29.jpg\">M.E.L. Mallowan<\/a>, This work is in the <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h2 id=\"victory-stele-of-naram-sin\"><em>Victory Stele of Naram-Sin<\/em><\/h2>\n<p>Naram-Sin leads his victorious army up a mountain, as vanquished Lullubi people fall before him. This monument depicts the Akkadian victory over the Lullubi Mountain people. In the 12th century B.C.E., a thousand\u00a0years after it was originally made, the Elamite king, Shutruk-Nahhunte, attacked Babylon and, according to his later inscription, the stele was taken to Susa in what is now Iran. A stele is a vertical stone monument or marker often inscribed with text or relief carving.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-2\" title=\"Victory Stele of Naram-Sin\" width=\"500\" height=\"375\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/OY79AuGZDNI?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"neo-sumerian-ur-iii-period\">Neo-Sumerian, Ur III period<\/h2>\n<p>The kingdom of Akkad ends with internal strife and invasion by the\u00a0Gutians\u00a0from the Zagros mountains to the northeast. The Gutians were ousted in turn and the city of Ur, south of Uruk, became dominant. King Ur-Nammu established the third dynasty of Ur, also referred to as the Ur III period. It is during this period that the great <em>Ziggurat of Ur<\/em> is constructed.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"ziggurat-of-ur\">Ziggurat of Ur<\/h2>\n<h3 id=\"ziggurats\">Ziggurats<\/h3>\n<p>A ziggurat is a built raised platform with four sloping sides\u2014like a chopped-off pyramid. Ziggurats are made of mud-bricks\u2014the building material of choice in the Near East, as stone is rare. Ziggurats were not only a visual focal point of the city, they\u00a0were a symbolic one, as well\u2014they were at the heart of the theocratic political system (a theocracy is a type of government where a god is recognized as the ruler, and the state officials operate on the god\u2019s behalf). So, seeing the ziggurat\u00a0towering above the city, one made a\u00a0visual connection to the god or goddess honored there, but also recognized that\u00a0deity\u2019s\u00a0political authority.<\/p>\n<p>The Great Ziggurat of Ur has been reconstructed twice, in antiquity and in the 1980s\u2014what\u2019s left of the original?<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1537\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1537\" style=\"width: 1429px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Ziggarat_of_Ur_001-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1537\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image23.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient ziggurat structure made of mud bricks, featuring a central staircase flanked by vertical grooves on a large rectangular facade. The structure is set against a clear sky with flat, barren ground in the foreground, highlighting its historical and architectural significance.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"623\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image23.jpeg 1429w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image23-300x131.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image23-1024x446.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image23-768x335.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image23-65x28.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image23-225x98.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image23-350x153.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1429px) 100vw, 1429px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1537\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Ziggurat of Ur (largely reconstructed), c. 2100 B.C.E., mud brick and baked brick, Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Ziggarat_of_Ur_001.jpg\">Tla2006<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"the-great-ziggurat\">The Great Ziggurat<\/h3>\n<p>The ziggurat is the most distinctive architectural invention of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-near-east-cradle-of-civilization\/\">Ancient Near East<\/a>. Like an Ancient\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-great-pyramids-of-giza\/\">Egyptian pyramid<\/a>, an ancient Near Eastern ziggurat has four sides and rises up to the realm of the gods. However, unlike Egyptian pyramids, the exterior of ziggurats were not smooth but tiered to accommodate the work which took place at the structure, as well as the administrative oversight and religious rituals essential to Ancient Near Eastern cities. Ziggurats are found scattered around what is today Iraq and Iran, and stand as an imposing testament to the power and skill of the ancient culture that produced them.<\/p>\n<p>One of the largest and best-preserved ziggurats of Mesopotamia is the Great Ziggurat at Ur. Small excavations occurred at the site around the turn of the twentieth century, and in the 1920s Sir Leonard Woolley, in a joint project with the University of Pennsylvania Museum in Philadelphia and the British Museum in London, revealed the monument in its entirety.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1538\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1538\" style=\"width: 1024px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/zig01.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1538\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image24.jpeg\" alt=\"Black and white photograph showing a large ancient stepped ziggurat with groups of people standing along its terraces and summit. The barren surrounding landscape and attire of individuals suggest historical or archaeological significance of the site.\" width=\"1024\" height=\"775\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image24.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image24-300x227.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image24-768x581.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image24-65x49.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image24-225x170.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image24-350x265.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1538\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Leonard Woolley, photo with excavation workers, c. 1923\u201324, featuring the ziggurat of Ur, c. 2100 B.C.E., Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq (photo: Penn Museum, Philadelphia)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>What Woolley found was a massive rectangular pyramidal structure, oriented to true north, 210 x 150 feet (64 x 46 meters), constructed with three levels of terraces, standing originally between 70 x 100 feet (21 x 30 meters) high. Three monumental staircases led up to a gate at the first terrace level. Next, a single staircase rose to a second terrace which supported a platform on which a temple and the final and highest terrace stood. The core of the ziggurat is made of mud brick covered with baked bricks laid with bitumen, a naturally occurring tar. Each of the baked bricks measured about 11.5 x 11.5 x 2.75 inches (29 x 29 x 7 cm) and weighed as much as 33 pounds. The lower portion of the ziggurat, which supported the first terrace, would have used some 720,000 baked bricks. The resources needed to build the ziggurat at Ur are staggering.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1539\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1539\" style=\"width: 1429px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/08\/Zig_close-scaled.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1539\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image25.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient stepped brick ziggurat with two wide staircases leading to the top platform, set against a clear blue sky. The structure features vertical brick patterns on its facade and shows signs of weathering.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"1072\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image25.jpeg 1429w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image25-300x225.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image25-1024x768.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image25-768x576.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image25-65x49.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image25-225x169.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image25-350x263.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1429px) 100vw, 1429px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1539\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Ziggurat of Ur (largely reconstructed), c. 2100 B.C.E., mud brick and baked brick, Tell el-Mukayyar, Iraq (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Zig_close.JPG\">Kaufingdude<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"moon-goddess-nanna\">Moon goddess Nanna<\/h3>\n<p>The ziggurat at Ur and the temple on its top were built around 2100 B.C.E. by the king Ur-Nammu of the Third Dynasty of Ur for the moon goddess Nanna, the divine patron of the city state. The structure would have been the highest point in the city by far and, like the spire of a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/amiens\/\">medieval cathedral<\/a>, would have been visible for miles around, a focal point for travelers and the pious alike. As the ziggurat supported the temple of the patron god of the city of Ur, it is likely that it was the place where the citizens of Ur would bring agricultural surplus and where they would go to receive their regular food allotments. In antiquity, to visit the ziggurat at Ur was to seek both spiritual and physical nourishment.<\/p>\n<p>Clearly the most important part of the ziggurat at Ur was the Nanna temple at its top, but this, unfortunately, has not survived. Some blue glazed bricks have been found which archaeologists suspect might have been part of the temple decoration. The lower parts of the ziggurat, which do survive, include amazing details of engineering and design. For instance, because the unbaked mud brick core of the temple would, according to the season, be alternatively more or less damp, the architects included holes through the baked exterior layer of the temple allowing water to evaporate from its core. Additionally, drains were built into the ziggurat\u2019s terraces to carry away the winter rains.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"husseins-assumption\">Hussein\u2019s assumption<\/h3>\n<p>The ziggurat at Ur has been restored twice. The first restoration was in antiquity. The last\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/neo-babylonian\/\">Neo-Babylonian<\/a>\u00a0king, Nabodinus, apparently replaced the two upper terraces of the structure in the 6th century B.C.E. Some 2,400 years later in the 1980s, Saddam Hussein restored the fa\u00e7ade of the massive lower foundation of the ziggurat, including the three monumental staircases leading up to the gate at the first terrace. Since this most recent restoration, however, the ziggurat at Ur has experienced some damage. During the recent war led by American and coalition forces, Saddam Hussein parked his MiG fighter jets next to the ziggurat, believing that the bombers would spare them for fear of destroying the ancient site. Hussein\u2019s assumptions proved only partially true as the ziggurat sustained some damage from American and coalition bombardment.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"assyria-an-introduction\">Assyria, an introduction<\/h2>\n<p>Led by aggressive warrior kings, Assyria dominated the fertile crescent for half a millennia, amassing vast wealth.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"a-military-culture\">A military culture<\/h3>\n<p>The Assyrian empire dominated Mesopotamia and all of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-near-east-cradle-of-civilization\/\">Near East<\/a>\u00a0for the first half of the first millennium B.C.E., led by a series of highly ambitious and aggressive warrior kings. Assyrian society was entirely military, with men obliged to fight in the army at any time. State offices were also under the purview of the military.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1540\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1540\" style=\"width: 1429px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/9454959542_94c3ebe921_o-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1540\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image26.jpeg\" alt=\"Ashurbanipal slitting the throat of a lion from his chariot (detail), Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions stone relief depicting Assyrian warriors in battle, featuring detailed carvings of figures with helmets, weapons, and armor. The relief highlights intricate textures of hair, beards, and clothing, emphasizing a dynamic scene of combat and historical military attire.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"859\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image26.jpeg 1429w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image26-300x180.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image26-1024x616.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image26-768x462.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image26-65x39.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image26-225x135.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image26-350x210.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1429px) 100vw, 1429px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1540\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Ashurbanipal slitting the throat of a lion from his chariot (detail),\u00a0<em>Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions<\/em>, gypsum hall relief from the North Palace, Nineveh, c. 645\u2013635 B.C.E., excavated by H. Rassam beginning in 1853 (British Museum; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/fpv94Q\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Indeed, the culture of the Assyrians was brutal, the army seldom marching on the battlefield but rather terrorizing opponents into submission who, once conquered, were tortured, raped, beheaded, and flayed with their corpses publicly displayed. The Assyrians torched enemies\u2019 houses, salted their fields, and cut down their orchards.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"luxurious-palaces\">Luxurious palaces<\/h3>\n<p>As a result of these fierce and successful military campaigns, the Assyrians acquired massive resources from all over the Near East which made the Assyrian kings very rich. The palaces were on an entirely new scale of size and glamour; one contemporary text describes the inauguration of the palace of\u00a0Kalhu, built by\u00a0Ashurnasirpal II, to which almost 70,000 people were invited to banquet.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1541\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1541\" style=\"width: 2048px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2018\/06\/LionHunt.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1541\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image27.jpeg\" alt=\"Lion pierced with arrows (detail), Lion Hunts of Ashurbanipal bas-relief carving depicts a lion pierced by multiple arrows, symbolizing struggle or defeat. Carving features detailed mane texture and muscular limbs, highlighting artistic skill and emotional intensity.\" width=\"2048\" height=\"1227\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image27.jpeg 2048w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image27-300x180.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image27-1024x614.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image27-768x460.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image27-1536x920.jpeg 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image27-65x39.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image27-225x135.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image27-350x210.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2048px) 100vw, 2048px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1541\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Lion pierced with arrows (detail),\u00a0<em>Lion Hunts of Ashurbanipal\u00a0<\/em>(ruled 669\u2013630 B.C.E.), c. 645 B.C.E., gypsum, Neo-Assyrian, hall reliefs from Palace at Nineveh across the Tigris from present day Mosul, Iraq (British Museum; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/fpfyPr\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Some of this wealth was spent on the construction of several gigantic and luxurious\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/lamassu-from-the-citadel-of-sargon-ii\/\">palaces<\/a>\u00a0spread throughout the region.\u00a0The interior public reception rooms of Assyrian palaces were lined with large scale carved limestone\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/assyrian-sculpture\/\">reliefs<\/a>\u00a0which offer beautiful and terrifying images of the power and wealth of the Assyrian kings and some of the most beautiful and captivating images in all of ancient Near Eastern art.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"feats-of-bravery\">Feats of bravery<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1542\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1542\" style=\"width: 1430px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/9454949668_064a2750e7_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1542\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28.jpeg\" alt=\"Lion Hunts of Ashurbanipal bas-relief carving depicting an ancient battle scene with a chariot drawn by horses on the right and a lion attacking on the left. The artwork features detailed figures of warriors, animals, and weapons, highlighting motion and conflict.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"605\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28.jpeg 1430w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28-300x127.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28-1024x433.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28-768x325.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28-65x28.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28-225x95.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28-350x148.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1430px) 100vw, 1430px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1542\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>Lion Hunts of Ashurbanipal\u00a0<\/em>(ruled 669\u2013630 B.C.E.), c. 645 B.C.E., gypsum, Neo-Assyrian, hall reliefs from Palace at Nineveh across the Tigris from present day Mosul, Iraq (British Museum; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/fpv68A\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Like all Assyrian kings,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-palace-decoration-of-ashurbanipal\/\">Ashurbanipal<\/a>\u00a0decorated the public walls of his palace with images of himself performing great feats of bravery, strength, and skill. Among these he included a\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ashurbanipal-hunting-lions\/\">lion hunt<\/a>\u00a0in which we see him coolly taking aim at a lion in front of his charging chariot, while his assistants fend off another lion attacking at the rear.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"the-destruction-of-susa\">The destruction of Susa<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1543\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1543\" style=\"width: 1102px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/47703001442_8b950bf137_3k-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1543\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image29.jpeg\" alt=\"Sacking of Susa by Ashurbanipal bas-relief carving depicting ancient workers constructing a fortified wall with towers, using tools like hammers and chisels. The scene includes multiple figures on top of tall structures and others below, with stylized trees in the foreground.\" width=\"1102\" height=\"1374\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image29.jpeg 1102w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image29-241x300.jpeg 241w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image29-821x1024.jpeg 821w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image29-768x958.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image29-65x81.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image29-225x281.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image29-350x436.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1102px) 100vw, 1102px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1543\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>Sacking of Susa by Ashurbanipal<\/em>, North Palace, Nineveh, 647 B.C.E. (British Museum; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/2fFmmo7\">Carole Raddato<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>One of the accomplishments Ashurbanipal was most proud of was the total destruction of the city of\u00a0Susa. In one relief, we see Ashurbanipal\u2019s troops destroying the walls of\u00a0Susa\u00a0with picks and hammers while fire rages within the walls of the city.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"military-victories-exploits\">Military victories &amp; exploits<\/h3>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1544\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1544\" style=\"width: 1145px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/Britishmuseumassyrianreliefarchersnimrud.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1544\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image30.jpeg\" alt=\"The sieging of a city bas-relief stone carving depicting two ancient archers aiming bows, with detailed attire and headgear, standing beside stylized trees. Carving features distinct lines and textures highlighting figures and natural elements.\" width=\"1145\" height=\"1049\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image30.jpeg 1145w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image30-300x275.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image30-1024x938.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image30-768x704.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image30-65x60.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image30-225x206.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image30-350x321.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1145px) 100vw, 1145px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1544\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>The sieging of a city<\/em>, Wall relief from Nimrud,\u00a0likely in Mesopotamia, c. 728 B.C.E. (British Museum; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Britishmuseumassyrianreliefarchersnimrud.jpg\">Ealdgyth<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>In the Central Palace at Nimrud, the Neo-Assyrian king\u00a0Tiglath-pileser III\u00a0illustrates his military victories and exploits, including the siege of a city in great detail. In one scene we see a soldier holding a large screen to protect two archers who are taking aim. The topography includes three different trees and a roaring river, most likely setting the scene in and around the Tigris or Euphrates rivers.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"ashurbanipal-hunting-lions\">Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions<\/h2>\n<p>Only the king was permitted to kill lions\u2014and doing so signified his power and ability to keep nature at bay.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-3\" title=\"Ashurbanipal hunting lions\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/J5iEY4hapMQ?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1542\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1542\" style=\"width: 1430px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/9454949668_064a2750e7_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1542\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28.jpeg\" alt=\"Bas-relief carving depicting an ancient battle scene with a chariot drawn by horses on the right and a lion attacking on the left. The artwork features detailed figures of warriors, animals, and weapons, showcasing motion and conflict.\" width=\"1430\" height=\"605\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28.jpeg 1430w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28-300x127.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28-1024x433.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28-768x325.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28-65x28.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28-225x95.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image28-350x148.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1430px) 100vw, 1430px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1542\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"><em>Lion Hunts of Ashurbanipal<\/em> (ruled 669-630 B.C.E.), c. 645 B.C.E., gypsum, Neo-Assyrian, hall reliefs from Palace at Ninevah across the Tigris from present day Mosul, Iraq; excavated by H. Rassam beginning in 1853 (British Museum, photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/fpv68A\">Steven Zucker<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<div class=\"textbox textbox--key-takeaways\">\n<header class=\"textbox__header\">\n<h2 class=\"textbox__title\">Practicing Visual Analysis<\/h2>\n<\/header>\n<div class=\"textbox__content\">\n<p>The artists who created <em>Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions<\/em> used long-standing Ancient Mesopotamian visual arts techniques, particularly the register to convey a narrative about power and authority. However, unlike the Sumerian <em>Standard of Ur<\/em> with its <strong>composite view<\/strong> of the king and use of <strong>hierarchy of scale<\/strong>, Assyrian artists used a <strong>profile view<\/strong> and showed the king in <strong>proportion<\/strong> with other figures and forms. Carved in low relief, <strong>contour lines<\/strong> create the shapes of the <strong>figurative forms<\/strong> of people, animals, and objects like chariots. The <strong>pictorial space<\/strong> is shallow yet shows depth with <strong>overlapping<\/strong> figures. Assyrian artists used many <strong>patterns<\/strong> to indicate hair and luxurious details on clothing while<strong> lines<\/strong> within the figures define the muscular structure on both people and animals. Interestingly, although the display of emotion is mostly absent in the art of the ancient world, Assyrian artists frequently showed animals in agony.<\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<h2 id=\"the-ishtar-gate-and-neo-babylonian-art-and-architecture\">The Ishtar Gate and Neo-Babylonian art and architecture<\/h2>\n<p>\u201cI, Nebuchadnezzar . . . magnificently adorned them with luxurious splendor for all mankind to behold in awe.\u201d Nebuchadnezzar II, Inscription plaque of the Ishtar Gate<\/p>\n<p>The chronology of Mesopotamia is complicated. Scholars refer to places (<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/sumerian-art-an-introduction\/\">Sumer<\/a>, for example) and peoples (the Babylonians), but also empires (<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/babylonia-an-introduction\/\">Babylonia<\/a>), and unfortunately for students of the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-near-east-cradle-of-civilization\/\">Ancient Near East<\/a>, these organizing principles do not always agree. The result is that we might, for example, speak of the very Ancient Babylonians starting in the 1800s B.C.E. and then also the Neo-Babylonians more than a thousand years later. What came in between you ask? Well, quite a lot, but mostly the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/kassite-art-unfinished-kudurru\/\">Kassites<\/a>\u00a0and the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/assyrian-art-an-introduction\/\">Assyrians<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>The Assyrian Empire which had dominated the Near East came to an end at around 600 B.C.E. due to a number of factors including military pressure by the Medes (a pastoral mountain people, again from the Zagros mountain range), the Babylonians, and possibly also civil war.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"a-neo-babylonian-dynasty\">A Neo-Babylonian dynasty<\/h3>\n<p>The Babylonians rose to power in the late 7th century and were heirs to the urban traditions which had long existed in southern Mesopotamia. They eventually ruled an empire as dominant in the Near East as that held by the Assyrians before them.<\/p>\n<p>This period is called Neo-Babylonian (or new Babylonia) because\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/visiting-babylon\/\">Babylon<\/a>\u00a0had also risen to power earlier and became an independent city-state, most famously during the reign of\u00a0King Hammurabi.<\/p>\n<p>In the art of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, we see an effort to invoke the styles and iconography of the 3rd-millennium rulers of Babylonia. In fact, one Neo-Babylonian king,\u00a0Nabonidus, found a statue of\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/art-of-akkad-an-introduction\/\">Sargon of Akkad<\/a>, set it in a temple and provided it with regular offerings.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1545\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1545\" style=\"width: 1429px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/22712995938_7d6e6fde12_o-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1545\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image31.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of the Ishtar Gate, an ancient Mesopotamian structure featuring deep blue glazed bricks decorated with golden animal reliefs, including lions, bulls, and dragons. The gate's large arched entrance and crenellated top are visible, with visitors providing scale inside a museum setting.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"1089\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image31.jpeg 1429w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image31-300x229.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image31-1024x780.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image31-768x585.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image31-65x50.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image31-225x171.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image31-350x267.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1429px) 100vw, 1429px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1545\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Ishtar Gate and Processional Way (Reconstruction), Babylon, c. 575 B.C.E., glazed mud brick (Pergamon Museum, Berlin; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/AB53of\">Steven Zucker<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"architecture\">Architecture<\/h3>\n<p>The Neo-Babylonians are most famous for their architecture, notably at their capital city, Babylon.\u00a0Nebuchadnezzar II\u00a0largely rebuilt this ancient city including its walls and seven gates. It is also during this era that Nebuchadnezzar II purportedly built the \u201cHanging Gardens of Babylon\u201d for his wife because she missed the gardens of her homeland in Media (modern day Iran). Though mentioned by ancient Greek and Roman writers, the \u201cHanging Gardens\u201d may, in fact, be legendary.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1546\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1546\" style=\"width: 1429px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/06\/23142958231_180dd3c505_o-scaled.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1546\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image32.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of Detail, Ishtar Gate and Processional Way brick relief depicting a lion walking to the right, set against a blue and green background with floral patterns above and below. The relief features detailed carving and color accents in orange, white, and black, highlighting the lion's mane and body structure.\" width=\"1429\" height=\"1045\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image32.jpeg 1429w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image32-300x219.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image32-1024x749.jpeg 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image32-768x562.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image32-65x48.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image32-225x165.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image32-350x256.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 1429px) 100vw, 1429px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1546\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Detail, Ishtar Gate and Processional Way (Reconstruction), Babylon, c. 575 B.C.E., glazed mud brick (Pergamon Museum, Berlin; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/Bg4Hce\">Steven Zucker<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY-NC-SA 2.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The Ishtar Gate (today in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin) was the most elaborate of the inner city gates constructed in Babylon in antiquity. The whole gate was covered in glazed bricks which the inscription tells us are made of\u00a0lapis lazuli\u00a0which would have rendered the fa\u00e7ade with a jewel-like shine. Alternating rows of lion and cattle march in a relief procession across the gleaming blue surface of the gate.<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" id=\"oembed-4\" title=\"Ishtar gate and Processional Way\" width=\"500\" height=\"281\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/U2iZ83oIZH0?feature=oembed&#38;rel=0\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<h2 id=\"ancient-persia-an-introduction\">Ancient Persia, an introduction<\/h2>\n<p>The heart of Ancient Persia is in what is now southwest Iran, in the region called the Fars. In the second half of the 6th century B.C.E., the Persians (also called the\u00a0Achaemenids) created an enormous empire reaching from the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/indus-valley-terracotta-human-figurines\/\">Indus Valley<\/a>\u00a0to Northern Greece and from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/history-asia\/#:~:text=or%20Asian%20countries.-,Central%20and%20North%20Asia,-%2C%20comprising%20territories%20bordered\">Central Asia<\/a>\u00a0to\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-egypt-an-introduction\/#:~:text=Ancient%20Egypt%20map%20(underlying%20map%20%C2%A9%20Google)\">Egypt<\/a>. Under Cyrus the Great, the Achaemenids conquered Neo-Babylonia and the region of Mesopotamia.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"overview-of-the-achaemenid-empire\">Overview of the Achaemenid Empire<\/h3>\n<p>The Achaemenid Empire (First Persian Empire) was an imperial state of Western Asia founded by Cyrus the Great and flourishing from c. 550\u2013330 B.C.E. The empire\u2019s territory was vast, stretching from the Balkan peninsula in the west to the Indus River valley in the east. The Achaemenid Empire is notable for its strong, centralized bureaucracy that had, at its head, a king and relied upon regional satraps (regional governors).<\/p>\n<p>A number of formerly independent states were made subject to the Persian Empire. These states covered a vast territory from central Asia and Afghanistan in the east to Asia Minor, Egypt, Libya, and Macedonia in the west. The Persians famously attempted to expand their empire further to include mainland Greece but they were ultimately defeated in this attempt. The Persian kings are noted for their penchant for monumental art and architecture. In creating monumental centers, including Persepolis, the Persian kings employed art and architecture to craft messages that helped to reinforce their claims to power and depict, iconographically, Persian rule.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"a-tolerant-empire\">A tolerant empire<\/h3>\n<p>Although the surviving literary sources on the Persian empire were written by\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ancient-greece-an-introduction\/\">ancient Greeks<\/a>\u00a0who were the sworn enemies of the Persians and highly contemptuous of them, the Persians were, in fact quite tolerant and ruled a multi-ethnic empire. Persia was the first empire known to have acknowledged the different faiths, languages, and political organizations of its subjects.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1547\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1547\" style=\"width: 946px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1547\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image33.png\" alt=\"Map showing Persian Empire boundaries in 490 B.C., highlighting regions, cities, and surrounding bodies of water. Red solid line marks empire limits, while dashed blue line traces route of Xerxes and 10,000 troops, with key locations labeled and seas colored blue.\" width=\"946\" height=\"682\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image33.png 946w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image33-300x216.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image33-768x554.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image33-65x47.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image33-225x162.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image33-350x252.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 946px) 100vw, 946px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1547\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">The Persian Empire, 490 B.C.E.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>This tolerance for the cultures under Persian control carried over into administration. In the lands which they conquered, the Persians continued to use indigenous languages and administrative structures. For example, the Persians accepted\u00a0hieroglyphic script\u00a0written on papyrus in Egypt and traditional\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/babylonia-an-introduction\/\">Babylonian<\/a>\u00a0record keeping in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/cuneiform\/\">cuneiform<\/a>\u00a0in\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/tiny-timeline-ancient-egypt-and-mesopotamia-in-a-global-context-5th-3rd-millennia-bce\/\">Mesopotamia<\/a>. The Persians must have been very proud of this new approach to empire, as can be seen in the representation of the many different peoples in the reliefs from\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/persepolis-the-audience-hall-of-darius-and-xerxes\/\">Persepolis<\/a>, a city founded by\u00a0Darius the Great\u00a0in the 6th century B.C.E.<\/p>\n<p>By the early fifth century B.C.E. the\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/persian-art-an-introduction\/\">Achaemenid (Persian) Empire<\/a>\u00a0ruled an estimated 44% of the human population of planet Earth. Through regional administrators the Persian kings controlled a vast territory which they constantly sought to expand. Famous for monumental architecture, Persian kings established numerous monumental centers, among those is Persepolis (today, in Iran). The great audience hall of the Persian kings Darius and Xerxes presents a visual microcosm of the Achaemenid empire\u2014making clear, through sculptural decoration, that the Persian king ruled over all of the subjugated ambassadors and vassals (who are shown bringing tribute in an endless eternal procession).<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1548\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1548\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/Kylix.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1548\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image34.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of an ancient Greek black-figure kylix, a type of drinking cup, featuring a central circular design with two warriors in combat. The artwork includes detailed armor, helmets, and a shield with a pegasus emblem, framed by a decorative geometric border.\" width=\"870\" height=\"747\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image34.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image34-300x258.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image34-768x659.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image34-65x56.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image34-225x193.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image34-350x301.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1548\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Kylix depicting a Greek hoplite slaying a Persian inside, by the Triptolemos painter, 5th century B.C.E. (<a href=\"https:\/\/www.nms.ac.uk\/explore-our-collections\/collection-search-results\/kylix\/408385\">National Museums of Scotland<\/a>, Source: <a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Greek-Persian_duel.jpg\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"overview-of-persepolis\">Overview of Persepolis<\/h3>\n<p>Persepolis, the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Persian empire, lies some 60 km northeast of Shiraz, Iran. The earliest archaeological remains of the city date to c. 515 B.C.E. Persepolis, a Greek toponym meaning \u201ccity of the Persians\u201d, was known to the Persians as P\u0101rsa and was an important city of the ancient world, renowned for its monumental art and architecture. The site was excavated by German archaeologists Ernst Herzfeld, Friedrich Krefter, and Erich Schmidt between 1931 and 1939. Its remains are striking even today, leading UNESCO to register the site as a World Heritage Site in 1979.<\/p>\n<p>Persepolis was intentionally founded in the Marvda\u0161t Plain during the later part of the sixth century B.C.E. It was marked as a special site by\u00a0Darius the Great\u00a0in 518 B.C.E. when he indicated the location of a \u201cRoyal Hill\u201d that would serve as a ceremonial center and citadel for the city. This was an action on Darius\u2019 part that was similar to the earlier king Cyrus the Great who had founded the city of Pasargadae. Darius the Great directed a massive building program at Persepolis that would continue under his successors\u00a0Xerxes\u00a0and\u00a0Artaxerxes I. Persepolis would remain an important site until it was sacked, looted, and burned under Alexander the Great of Macedon in 330 B.C.E.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1549\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1549\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/PersepolisPlanNew.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1549\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image35.jpeg\" alt=\"Architectural floor plan of Persepolis complex with color-coded sections representing Apadana (red), Throne Hall (orange), Treasury (blue), Palace of Darius (yellow), Council Hall (green), Artaxerxes Tomb (purple), Palace of Xerxes (light purple), Harem of Xerxes (pink), and Gate of Xerxes (dark blue). The plan includes detailed room layouts, connecting corridors, and a scale bar for spatial reference.\" width=\"870\" height=\"1044\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image35.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image35-250x300.jpeg 250w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image35-853x1024.jpeg 853w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image35-768x922.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image35-65x78.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image35-225x270.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image35-350x420.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1549\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Plan of Persepolis (underlying image:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/artsandculture.google.com\/asset\/persepolis-plan\/GQGGApNu5MEvzA\">Oriental Institute Museum via Google Arts and Culture<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>Darius\u2019 program at Persepolis including the building of a massive terraced platform covering 125,000 square meters of the promontory. This platform supported four groups of structures: residential quarters, a treasury, ceremonial palaces, and fortifications. Scholars continue to debate the purpose and nature of the site. Primary sources indicate that Darius saw himself building an important stronghold. Some scholars suggest that the site has a sacred connection to the god Mithra (Mehr), as well as links to the Nowruz, the Persian New Year\u2019s festival. More general readings see Persepolis as an important administrative and economic center of the Persian empire.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"persepolis-the-audience-hall-of-darius-and-xerxes\">Persepolis: The Audience Hall of Darius and Xerxes<\/h2>\n<h3 id=\"the-ap\u0101dana\">The Ap\u0101dana<\/h3>\n<p>Persepolis included a massive columned hall used for receptions by the Kings, called the\u00a0Ap\u0101dana. This hall contained 72 columns and two monumental stairways.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1550\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1550\" style=\"width: 268px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1550\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image36.png\" alt=\"A detailed illustration of an ancient Persian palace featuring tall, ornate columns with intricate capitals and a raised platform accessed by stairs. The scene includes small human figures near the structure, emphasizing the grand scale and architectural complexity of the building.\" width=\"268\" height=\"398\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image36.png 268w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image36-202x300.png 202w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image36-65x97.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image36-225x334.png 225w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 268px) 100vw, 268px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1550\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">19th century reconstruction of the Ap\u0101dana, Persepolis (Fars, Iran) by Charles Chipiez (Source: <a href=\"19th%20century%20reconstruction%20of%20the%20Ap\u0101dana,%20Persepolis%20(Fars,%20Iran)%20by%20Charles%20Chipiez\">Wikimedia<\/a>, License: <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/publicdomain\/mark\/1.0\/\">Public Domain<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The Ap\u0101dana palace is a large ceremonial building, likely an audience hall with an associated portico. The audience hall itself is hypostyle in its plan, meaning that the roof of the structure is supported by columns. Ap\u0101dana is the Persian term equivalent to the Greek hypostyle (Ancient Greek: \u1f51\u03c0\u03cc\u03c3\u03c4\u03c5\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 hyp\u00f3st\u0233los). The footprint of the Ap\u0101dana is c. 1,000 square meters; originally 72 columns, each standing to a height of 24 meters, supported the roof (only 14 columns remain standing today). The column capitals assumed the form of either\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/capital-of-a-column-from-the-audience-hall-of-the-palace-of-darius-i-susa\/\">twin-headed bulls<\/a>\u00a0(above), eagles or lions, all animals represented royal authority and kingship.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1551\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1551\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/20388181404_69af0513cf_k.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1551\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image37.jpeg\" alt=\"Photograph of a Bull Capital from Persepolis sculpture featuring two symmetrical bull heads facing opposite directions, mounted on a decorated column. The sculpture showcases intricate carvings on the bulls' bodies and the column base, highlighting ancient artistic craftsmanship and cultural symbolism.\" width=\"870\" height=\"580\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image37.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image37-300x200.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image37-768x512.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image37-65x43.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image37-225x150.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image37-350x233.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1551\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Bull Capital from Persepolis, Ap\u0101dana, Persepolis (Fars, Iran), c. 520\u2013465 B.C.E. (National Museum of Iran; photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/flic.kr\/p\/x4CL23\">s1ingshot<\/a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/2.0\/deed.en\">CC BY 2.0<\/a><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The king of the Achaemenid Persian empire is presumed to have received guests and tribute in this soaring, imposing space. To that end a sculptural program decorates monumental stairways on the north and east. The theme of that program is one that pays tribute to the Persian king himself as it depicts representatives of 23 subject nations bearing gifts to the king.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1552\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1552\" style=\"width: 870px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-32-18.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1552\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image38.jpeg\" alt=\"Assyrians with Rams bringing tribute to the Persian king bas-relief carving depicting three men leading two rams, with detailed patterns on animals and figures, set against a floral border and a tree on the left. This ancient stone artwork emphasizes intricate textures on hair, clothing, and animal fur.\" width=\"870\" height=\"653\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image38.jpeg 870w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image38-300x225.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image38-768x576.jpeg 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image38-65x49.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image38-225x169.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image38-350x263.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 870px) 100vw, 870px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1552\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Assyrians with Rams bringing tribute to the Persian king, relief from Ap\u0101dana, Persepolis (Fars, Iran), c. 520\u2013465 B.C.E. (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-32-18.jpg\">Simisa<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The walls of the spaces and stairs leading up to the reception hall were carved with hundreds of figures, several of which illustrated subject peoples of various ethnicities, bringing tribute to the Persian king.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1553\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1553\" style=\"width: 2482px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1553\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image39.png\" alt=\"Black and white photograph of View of the eastern stairway and columns of the Ap\u0101dana, Persepolis featuring tall, intricately carved stone columns arranged in a row with detailed bas-reliefs on surrounding walls. The scene captures a wide, open archaeological site under a partly cloudy sky.\" width=\"2482\" height=\"1774\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image39.png 2482w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image39-300x214.png 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image39-1024x732.png 1024w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image39-768x549.png 768w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image39-1536x1098.png 1536w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image39-2048x1464.png 2048w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image39-65x46.png 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image39-225x161.png 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image39-350x250.png 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 2482px) 100vw, 2482px\" \/><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1553\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">View of the eastern stairway and columns of the Ap\u0101dana, Persepolis (Fars, Iran), c. 520\u2013465 B.C.E. (<a href=\"https:\/\/news.uchicago.edu\/story\/exhibit-features-archival-images-persepolis-royal-complex-ancient-persia\">The Oriental Institute, University of Chicago<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<h3 id=\"the-ap\u0101dana-stairs-and-sculptural-program\">The Ap\u0101dana stairs and sculptural program<\/h3>\n<p>The monumental stairways that approach the Ap\u0101dana from the north and the east were adorned with registers of relief sculpture that depicted representatives of the twenty-three subject nations of the Persian empire bringing valuable gifts as tribute to the king. The sculptures form a processional scene, leading some scholars to conclude that the reliefs capture the scene of actual, annual tribute processions\u2014perhaps on the occasion of the Persian New Year\u2013that took place at Persepolis. The relief program of the northern stairway was perhaps completed c. 500\u2013490 B.C.E. The two sets of stairway reliefs mirror and complement each other. Each program has a central scene of the enthroned king flanked by his attendants and guards.<\/p>\n<p>Noblemen wearing elite outfits and military apparel are also present. The representatives of the twenty-three nations, each led by an attendant, bring tribute while dressed in costumes suggestive of their land of origin. Margaret Root interprets the central scenes of the enthroned king as the focal point of the overall composition, perhaps even reflecting events that took place within the Ap\u0101dana itself.<\/p>\n<figure id=\"attachment_1554\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-1554\" style=\"width: 500px\" class=\"wp-caption alignnone\"><a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/10\/PersepolisRelief.jpeg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"size-full wp-image-1554\" src=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image40.jpeg\" alt=\"An Armenian tribute bearer carrying a metal vessel with Homa (griffin) handles bas-relief sculpture depicting a bearded man wearing a hat, holding a large, ornate vessel with animal-shaped handles.\" width=\"500\" height=\"501\" srcset=\"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image40.jpeg 500w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image40-300x300.jpeg 300w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image40-150x150.jpeg 150w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image40-65x65.jpeg 65w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image40-225x225.jpeg 225w, https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/71\/2026\/07\/image40-350x351.jpeg 350w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 500px) 100vw, 500px\" \/><\/a><figcaption id=\"caption-attachment-1554\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">An Armenian tribute bearer carrying a metal vessel with Homa (griffin) handles, relief from the eastern stairs of the Ap\u0101dana in Persepolis (Fars, Iran), c. 520\u2013465 B.C.E. (photo:\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/commons.wikimedia.org\/wiki\/File:Hay_pers.jpg\">Aryamahasattva<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-sa\/3.0\/deed.en\">CC BY SA 3.0<\/a>)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<p>The relief program of the Ap\u0101dana serves to reinforce and underscore the power of the Persian king and the breadth of his dominion. The motif of subjugated peoples contributing their wealth to the empire\u2019s central authority serves to visually cement this political dominance. These processional scenes may have exerted influence beyond the Persian sphere, as some scholars have discussed the possibility that Persian relief sculpture from Persepolis may have influenced Athenian sculptors of the fifth century B.C.E. who were tasked with creating the Ionic frieze of the\u00a0<a href=\"http:\/\/smarthistory.org\/the-parthenon-athens\/\">Parthenon<\/a>\u00a0in Athens. In any case, the Ap\u0101dana, both as a building and as an ideological tableau, make clear and strong statements about the authority of the Persian king and present a visually unified idea of the immense Achaemenid empire.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"conquered-by-alexander-the-great\">Conquered by Alexander the Great<\/h3>\n<p>The Persian Empire was, famously,\u00a0<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/alexander-mosaic-from-the-house-of-the-faun-pompeii\/\">conquered by Alexander the Great<\/a>. Alexander no doubt was impressed by the Persian system of absorbing and retaining local language and traditions as he imitated this system himself in the vast lands he won in battle. Indeed, Alexander made a point of burying the last Persian emperor, Darius III, in a lavish and respectful way in the royal tombs near Persepolis. This enabled Alexander to claim title to the Persian throne and legitimize his control over the greatest empire of the\u00a0Ancient Near East.<\/p>\n<h2 id=\"conclusion-1\">Conclusion<\/h2>\n<p>Ancient Mesopotamian history spans a vast timeline across several different civilizations of the Ancient Near East. From the Sumerians and their city-centers like Ur to the Persian Empire anchored in Persepolis, the various civilizations created artworks that were expressive of cultural ideas related to religion, politics, and power.<\/p>\n<h3 id=\"citation-and-licensing-1\">Citation and Licensing<\/h3>\n<p>The following sections were written by Chelsea Wright and are licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a>:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Chapter Overview and Introduction<\/li>\n<li>Focus artwork and term list compiled by Chelsea Wright<\/li>\n<li>Practicing Visual Analysis<\/li>\n<li>Conclusion<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>The following articles from <em>Smarthistory<\/em> licensed <a href=\"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/4.0\/\">CC BY-NC-SA 4.0<\/a> were remixed and adapted for the chapter:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Dr. Senta German, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/sumerian-art-an-introduction\/\">Sumer, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, June 8, 2018.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Senta German, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/standard-of-ur-2\/\"><em>Standard of Ur<\/em>\u00a0and other objects from the Royal Graves<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, July 26, 2023.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Senta German, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/art-of-akkad-an-introduction\/\">Akkad, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, June 8, 2018.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Beth Harris and Dr. Steven Zucker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/victory-stele-of-naram-sin\/\"><em>Victory Stele of Naram-Sin<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, November 24, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Senta German, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ziggurat-of-ur\/\">Ziggurat of Ur<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Senta German, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/white-temple-and-ziggurat-uruk\/\">White Temple and ziggurat, Uruk<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Senta German, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/assyrian-art-an-introduction\/\">Assyria, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, May 14, 2019.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Steven Zucker and Dr. Beth Harris, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/ashurbanipal-hunting-lions\/\"><em>Ashurbanipal Hunting Lions<\/em><\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, December 11, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Senta German, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/neo-babylonian\/\">The Ishtar Gate and Neo-Babylonian art and architecture<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, August 8, 2015.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Senta German, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/persian-art-an-introduction\/\">Ancient Persia, an introduction<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, June 8, 2018.<\/li>\n<li>Dr. Jeffrey A. Becker, &#8220;<a href=\"https:\/\/smarthistory.org\/persepolis-the-audience-hall-of-darius-and-xerxes\/\">Persepolis: The Audience Hall of Darius and Xerxes<\/a>,&#8221; in\u00a0<em>Smarthistory<\/em>, January 24, 2016.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"menu_order":4,"template":"","meta":{"pb_show_title":"","pb_short_title":"","pb_subtitle":"","pb_authors":[],"pb_section_license":""},"chapter-type":[],"contributor":[],"license":[],"class_list":["post-1555","chapter","type-chapter","status-publish","hentry"],"part":3,"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1555","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/chapter"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"version-history":[{"count":5,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1555\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":1979,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1555\/revisions\/1979"}],"part":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/parts\/3"}],"metadata":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapters\/1555\/metadata\/"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1555"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"chapter-type","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/pressbooks\/v2\/chapter-type?post=1555"},{"taxonomy":"contributor","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/contributor?post=1555"},{"taxonomy":"license","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/pressbooks.palomar.edu\/arthc1100\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/license?post=1555"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}